Although software testing can determine the correctness of software under the assumption of some specific hypotheses (see the hierarchy of testing difficulty below), testing cannot identify all the defects within the software.	虽然软件测试可以在一些特定的假设条件（见下文的测试难度等级）的假设下鉴定软件的准确性，但通过测试并不能找到软件内部的所有缺陷。
Instead, it furnishes a criticism or comparison that compares the state and behavior of the product against test oracles—principles or mechanisms by which someone might recognize a problem.	它只是提供了一种批评意见，或者说进行了一次比较，将该产品的状态和行为与测试准则（即一组原则或机制，通过这些原则或机制可能会认识到问题所在）进行对比。
These oracles may include (but are not limited to) specifications, contracts, comparable products, past versions of the same product, inferences about intended or expected purpose, user or customer expectations, relevant standards, applicable laws, or other criteria.	这些准则可能包括（但不限于）规范、合同、可比产品，该产品的以往版本，以及对预期目的或预期使用目的、用户或客户期望、相关标准、适用法律或其它标准的推断。
A primary purpose of testing is to detect software failures so that defects may be discovered and corrected.	测试的主要目的是检测软件故障，发现缺陷并改正缺陷。
Testing cannot establish that a product functions properly under all conditions, but only that it does not function properly under specific conditions.	测试只能检测出该产品在某种特定的情形下无法正常运行，而不能证实该产品在所有情况下都能正常运行。
The scope of software testing often includes the examination of code as well as the execution of that code in various environments and conditions as well as examining the aspects of code: does it do what it is supposed to do and do what it needs to do.	软件测试的测试范围通常包括检查代码、在各种环境和条件下执行该代码以及检查代码的一些方面：代码的行为是否达到预期？代码的行为是否符合需求？
In the current culture of software development, a testing organization may be separate from the development team.	在当前的软件开发文化下，测试团队和开发团队有可能是分开的。
There are various roles for testing team members.	测试团队的成员有多种角色。
Information derived from software testing may be used to correct the process by which software is developed.	从软件测试中获得的信息可以用于纠正开发该软件的过程。
Every software product has a target audience.	每一款软件都有其对应的目标受众。
For example, the audience for video game software is completely different from banking software.	比方说，电子游戏软件的受众就和银行软件的受众完全不同。
Therefore, when an organization develops or otherwise invests in a software product, it can assess whether the software product will be acceptable to its end users, its target audience, its purchasers and other stakeholders.	因此，某个机构在开发或投资一款软件产品时，可以评估该软件产品到底能不能为终端用户、目标受众、消费者以及其他利益相关者所接受。
Software testing aids the process of attempting to make this assessment.	在尝试进行这种评估的过程中，我们可以借助于软件测试。
Not all software defects are caused by coding errors.	并非所有的软件缺陷都是由代码错误导致的。
One common source of expensive defects is requirement gaps, i.e., unrecognized requirements that result in errors of omission by the program designer.	代价高昂的缺陷通常来源于需求缺口，即需求未被识别，导致程序设计人员遗漏而出错。
Requirement gaps can often be non-functional requirements such as testability, scalability, maintainability, performance, and security.	需求缺口通常是一些非功能性需求，如稳定性、可扩展性、可维护性、性能、安全性等。
Software faults occur through the following processes.	通过以下过程会发生软件故障：
A programmer makes an error (mistake), which results in a defect (fault, bug) in the software source code.	程序员犯了一个错误（过失），导致软件的源代码出现了一个缺陷（故障，漏洞）。
If this defect is executed, in certain situations the system will produce wrong results, causing a failure.	如果执行这一缺陷，系统在某些情况下会产生错误结果，从而导致软件失效。
Not all defects will necessarily result in failures.	并非所有的缺陷都会导致失效。
For example, defects in the dead code will never result in failures.	比如，无用代码中的缺陷就不会导致失效。
A defect can turn into a failure when the environment is changed.	当所在环境发生变化时，一个缺陷可能就会变成一次失效。
Examples of these changes in environment include the software being run on a new computer hardware platform, alterations in source data, or interacting with different software.	环境发生变化的例子包括软件在新的计算机硬件平台上运行、源数据发生改变、与不同的软件进行交互等等。
A single defect may result in a wide range of failure symptoms.	单个缺陷可能会导致各种各样的失效症状。
A fundamental problem with software testing is that testing under all combinations of inputs and preconditions (initial state) is not feasible, even with a simple product.	软件测试的一个基本问题是，即便是简单的软件产品，也不可能做到将各种输入和前提条件（初始状态）的所有组合都测试一遍。
This means that the number of defects in a software product can be very large and defects that occur infrequently are difficult to find in testing.	这意味着一款软件产品的缺陷数量可能非常庞大，而且不经常发生的缺陷在测试中很难发现。
More significantly, non-functional dimensions of quality (how it is supposed to be versus what it is supposed to do)—usability, scalability, performance, compatibility, reliability—can be highly subjective; something that constitutes sufficient value to one person may be intolerable to another.	更重要的是，软件质量（应该是什么样子 vs 应该具备什么功能）的一些非功能性维度——可用性、可扩展性、性能、兼容性、可靠性——可能带有很强的主观性，一个东西可能这个人觉得很有价值，另一个人却觉得不能忍受。
Software developers can't test everything, but they can use combinatorial test design to identify the minimum number of tests needed to get the coverage they want.	软件开发人员无法测试所有内容，但通过组合测试设计，他们可以确定获得自己想要的覆盖率所需的最少测试数是多少。
Combinatorial test design enables users to get greater test coverage with fewer tests.	组合测试设计使用户能够以更少的测试获得更大的测试覆盖率。
Whether they are looking for speed or test depth, they can use combinatorial test design methods to build structured variation into their test cases.	不管他们追求的是速度还是测试深度，他们都可以利用组合测试设计的各种方法，将结构化变差构建到他们的测试用例中。
A study conducted by NIST in 2002 reports that software bugs cost the U.S. economy $59.5 billion annually.	美国国家标准与技术研究院 2002 年的一份研究报告表示，软件漏洞每年给美国带来的经济损失达 595 亿美元。
More than a third of this cost could be avoided, if better software testing was performed.	只要在软件测试方面多下一点功夫，三分之一以上的损失都是可以避免的。 
Outsourcing software testing because of costs is very common, with China, the Philippines and India being preferred destinations.	由于成本原因，软件测试普遍外包，其中中国、菲律宾、印度是外包的首选之地。
Software testing can be done by dedicated software testers.	软件测试可以交给专门的软件测试员来做。
Until the 1980s, the term "software tester" was used generally, but later it was also seen as a separate profession.	直到 20 世纪 80 年代，“软件测试员”都还是一种范称，但后来，这个词也被看作是一种专门的职业。
Regarding the periods and the different goals in software testing, different roles have been established, such as test manager, test lead, test analyst, test designer, tester, automation developer, and test administrator.	软件测试的各个阶段和不同目标分别对应着各种不同的角色，如测试经理、测试主管、测试分析师、测试设计师、测试人员、自动化开发人员和测试管理员。
Software testing can also be performed by non-dedicated software testers.	软件测试也可以由非专业的软件测试人员执行。
Glenford J. Myers initially introduced the separation of debugging from testing in 1979.	1979 年，格伦福德·J·迈尔斯最先提出要将调试和测试分离开来。
Although his attention was on breakage testing ("A successful test case is one that detects an as-yet undiscovered error.") it illustrated the desire of the software engineering community to separate fundamental development activities, such as debugging, from that of verification.	虽然他当时的初衷是破损测试（“一个成功的测试用例是能够检测到尚未发现的错误的用例”），但此举体现出了在软件工程界，人们想要将诸如调试之类的基本开发操作与软件的验证操作分离开来的愿望。
There are many approaches available in software testing.	可用于软件测试的方法有很多。
Reviews, walkthroughs, or inspections are referred to as static testing, whereas executing programmed code with a given set of test cases is referred to as dynamic testing.	审查、走查或检验的过程被称为静态测试，而用一组给定的测试用例来执行编程代码的过程被称为动态测试。
Dynamic testing takes place when the program itself is run.	动态测试则发生在程序本身也在运行的时候。
Dynamic testing may begin before the program is 100% complete in order to test particular sections of code and are applied to discrete functions or modules.	动态测试可以在程序尚未 100% 完成之前就开始，以测试特定的代码段并应用于离散的函数或模块中。
Typical techniques for these are either using stubs/drivers or execution from a debugger environment.	对此的通常做法要么是利用 stub 或 driver，要么是在调试器的环境中执行。
Static testing involves verification, whereas dynamic testing also involves validation.	静态测试中涉及到验证，而动态测试中也涉及到验证。
Passive testing means verifying the system behavior without any interaction with the software product.	被动测试的意思是在不与该软件产品进行互动的情况下验证系统的行为。
Contrary to active testing, testers do not provide any test data but look at system logs and traces.	与主动测试相反，测试人员并不提供任何测试数据，而是观察系统留下的日志和痕迹。
They mine for patterns and specific behavior in order to make some kind of decisions.	他们挖掘模式和特定行为，以便作出某种决定。
This is related to offline runtime verification and log analysis.	其中关系到脱机运行时的验证和日志分析。
Exploratory testing is an approach to software testing that is concisely described as simultaneous learning, test design and test execution.	探索性测试是一种软件测试方法，简单而言就是同时进行学习、测试设计和测试执行。
Cem Kaner, who coined the term in 1984, defines exploratory testing as "a style of software testing that emphasizes the personal freedom and responsibility of the individual tester to continually optimize the quality of his/her work by treating test-related learning, test design, test execution, and test result interpretation as mutually supportive activities that run in parallel throughout the project."	“探索性测试”这个词是由杰姆·卡尼尔于 1984 年所创，他将其定义为“一种强调测试员个人自由和责任的软件测试风格，测试员可以将与软件测试相关的学习、测试设计、测试执行、测试结果解释看作整个程序中并行运行、相互支持的活动，以持续优化其作品的质量”。
Software testing methods are traditionally divided into white- and black-box testing.	 软件测试历来有两种方法：白盒测试和黑盒测试。
These two approaches are used to describe the point of view that the tester takes when designing test cases.	这两种方法用来描述测试员在设计测试用例时所采取的视角。
A hybrid approach called grey-box testing may also be applied to software testing methodology.	将这两者结合起来的测试法叫灰盒测试，这种方法也被用在软件测试方法论中。
With the concept of grey-box testing—which develops tests from specific design elements—gaining prominence, this "arbitrary distinction" between black- and white-box testing has faded somewhat.	随着灰盒测试（从某些特定的设计元素上进行测试开发）的概念变得越来越重要，黑盒测试和百合测试之间的这种“任意差异”已经有所减弱。
Black-box testing (also known as functional testing) treats the software as a "black box," examining functionality without any knowledge of internal implementation, without seeing the source code.	黑盒测试（也叫“功能测试”）将程序视作一个“黑盒”，在不知道内部执行情况也不查看源代码的情况下检查程序的功能。
The testers are only aware of what the software is supposed to do, not how it does it.	测试员只关注该软件是何用途，无需关注其实现方式。
Black-box testing methods include: equivalence partitioning, boundary value analysis, all-pairs testing, state transition tables, decision table testing, fuzz testing, model-based testing, use case testing, exploratory testing, and specification-based testing.	黑盒测试的方法有：等价类划分、边界值分析、全对测试、状态转换表法、判定表测试、模糊测试、基于模型的测试、用例测试、探索性测试以及基于规格说明的测试。
Specification-based testing aims to test the functionality of software according to the applicable requirements.	基于规格说明的测试旨在根据适用要求对软件的功能进行测试。
This level of testing usually requires thorough test cases to be provided to the tester, who then can simply verify that for a given input, the output value (or behavior), either "is" or "is not" the same as the expected value specified in the test case.	这一级别的测试通常需要向测试员提供详尽的测试用例，然后测试员可以通过一个给定的输入简单地对其进行验证，确定输出值（或行为）“是”或“不是”该测试用例中所指定的那个期望值。
Test cases are built around specifications and requirements, i.e., what the application is supposed to do.	测试用例是围绕规格说明和要求（例如该应用程序是用来干什么的）建立起来的。
It uses external descriptions of the software, including specifications, requirements, and designs to derive test cases.	通过对软件进行外部描述，包括规格、要求、设计等等，来得出测试用例。
These tests can be functional or non-functional, though usually functional.	这些测试可以是功能性的，也可以是非功能性的，但一般来说都是功能性测试。
Specification-based testing may be necessary to assure correct functionality, but it is insufficient to guard against complex or high-risk situations.	要确保功能的正确性，基于规格说明的测试是很必要的，但这种方法并不足以防止复杂情况或高风险情况的发生。
One advantage of the black box technique is that no programming knowledge is required.	黑盒测试法的一大优势是不需要用到编程知识。
Whatever biases the programmers may have had, the tester likely has a different set and may emphasize different areas of functionality.	不管程序员有着怎样的偏见，测试员的偏见都有可能会与之不一样，所侧重的功能点也可能会不同。
On the other hand, black-box testing has been said to be "like a walk in a dark labyrinth without a flashlight." Because they do not examine the source code, there are situations when a tester writes many test cases to check something that could have been tested by only one test case or leaves some parts of the program untested.	另一方面，黑盒测试被认为是“在黑暗的迷宫中摸黑前行”。由于黑盒测试不检查源代码，因此会存在这样的情况，即本来只用一个测试用例就能测试出来东西，测试员写了很多测试用例来检查；或者该程序有一些部分没有被测试到。
This method of test can be applied to all levels of software testing: unit, integration, system and acceptance.	该测试方法适用于软件测试的所有级别：单元、集成、系统和验收。
It typically comprises most if not all testing at higher levels, but can also dominate unit testing as well.	它通常囊括绝大多数甚至所有的高级别测试，但在单元测试中也占主导地位。
Component interface testing	组件接口测试
Component interface testing is a variation of black-box testing, with the focus on the data values beyond just the related actions of a subsystem component.	组件接口测试是黑盒测试的一种变体，不仅关注子系统组件的相关操作，还关注数据的值。
The practice of component interface testing can be used to check the handling of data passed between various units, or subsystem components, beyond full integration testing between those units.	组件接口测试除了可以用于各个单元之间的全集成测试，还可以用来检查这些单元或子系统组件之间数据传递的处理情况。
The data being passed can be considered as "message packets" and the range or data types can be checked, for data generated from one unit, and tested for validity before being passed into another unit.	被传递的数据可以看作是“消息包”，可以检查一个单元所生成数据的数据范围或类型，并在传递给下一个单元之前测试其有效性。
One option for interface testing is to keep a separate log file of data items being passed, often with a timestamp logged to allow analysis of thousands of cases of data passed between units for days or weeks.	接口测试的一种选择是为传递的数据项保留一个单独的日志文件，文件通常带有一个时间戳记录，这样就可以对数天或数周内各单元之间传递的数千种数据情况进行分析。
Tests can include checking the handling of some extreme data values while other interface variables are passed as normal values.	测试包括检查某些极端数据值的处理情况，其他接口变量则作为正常的值来传递。
Unusual data values in an interface can help explain unexpected performance in the next unit.	接口处的不寻常数据值可以帮助解释下一个单元的意外行为。
The aim of visual testing is to provide developers with the ability to examine what was happening at the point of software failure by presenting the data in such a way that the developer can easily find the information she or he requires, and the information is expressed clearly.	可视化测试的目的是让开发人员能够检查软件故障点发生了什么，通过呈现数据，开发人员可以很容易地找到他/她所需的信息，而且信息的表达是很清楚的。
At the core of visual testing is the idea that showing someone a problem (or a test failure), rather than just describing it, greatly increases clarity and understanding.	视觉测试的核心概念是向某人展示一个问题（或一次测试失败），而不仅仅是描述这个问题，这大大提高了问题的清晰度及可理解性。
Visual testing, therefore, requires the recording of the entire test process – capturing everything that occurs on the test system in video format.	因此，可视化测试需要录制整个测试过程——以视频的格式捕捉测试系统中所发生的一切。
Output videos are supplemented by real-time tester input via picture-in-a-picture webcam and audio commentary from microphones.	通过画中画摄像以及来自麦克风的音频评论获得实时测试输入，作为输出视频的补充。
Visual testing provides a number of advantages.	可视化测试具有很多优势。
The quality of communication is increased drastically because testers can show the problem (and the events leading up to it) to the developer as opposed to just describing it and the need to replicate test failures will cease to exist in many cases.	可以大大提高沟通质量，因为测试人员可以向开发人员展示问题（以及导致问题的事件），而非仅仅描述问题。多数情况下不再需要一次次去重复测试失败。
The developer will have all the evidence she or he requires of a test failure and can instead focus on the cause of the fault and how it should be fixed.	开发人员获得他/她所需的关于测试失败的所有证据，可以转而专注于错误的原因以及应该如何修复。
Ad hoc testing and exploratory testing are important methodologies for checking software integrity, because they require less preparation time to implement, while the important bugs can be found quickly.	随机测试和探索性测试是检查软件完整性的重要方法，因为这两种方法在执行前需要的准备时间更少，但却能快速地找出重大的 bug。
In ad hoc testing, where testing takes place in an improvised, impromptu way, the ability of the tester(s) to base testing off documented methods and then improvise variations of those tests can result in more rigorous examination of defect fixes.	在随机测试中，测试是以一种临时、即兴的方式进行的，测试人员能够基于文档化的方法进行测试，然后即兴改变这些测试，这样做可以使得对缺陷修复的检查更加严密。
However, unless strict documentation of the procedures are maintained, one of the limits of ad hoc testing is lack of repeatability.	然而，随机测试的不足之一是缺乏可重复性，除非将程序文档严格保存下来。
Grey-box testing (American spelling: gray-box testing) involves having knowledge of internal data structures and algorithms for purposes of designing tests while executing those tests at the user, or black-box level.	在灰盒（grey-box）测试（美式英语中是“gray-box”）中，为了设计测试，需要了解内部数据结构和算法，而且是在用户或黑盒的级别上去执行这些测试。
The tester will often have access to both "the source code and the executable binary." Grey-box testing may also include reverse engineering (using dynamic code analysis) to determine, for instance, boundary values or error messages.	测试人员往往可以访问“源代码和可执行的二进制代码”。灰盒测试还可能会用到逆向工程（利用动态码分析）来确定边界值或错误消息之类的内容。
Manipulating input data and formatting output do not qualify as grey-box, as the input and output are clearly outside of the "black box" that we are calling the system under test.	处理输入数据和格式化输出这两点不属于灰盒，因为输入和输出显然位于我们所谓的“黑盒”（即正在接受测试的系统）之外。
This distinction is particularly important when conducting integration testing between two modules of code written by two different developers, where only the interfaces are exposed for the test.	在由两位不同的开发人员所写的两个代码模块之间进行集成测试时，必须在两者之间进行区分，这是尤其重要的，因为这种情况下只在接口这个的地方进行测试。
By knowing the underlying concepts of how the software works, the tester makes better-informed testing choices while testing the software from outside.	了解软件如何工作的底层逻辑之后，测试人员就可以在从外部测试软件时作出更明智的测试选择。
Typically, a grey-box tester will be permitted to set up an isolated testing environment with activities such as seeding a database.	一般来说，灰盒测试人员会被允许利用播种数据库之类的操作建立起一个独立的测试环境。
The tester can observe the state of the product being tested after performing certain actions such as executing SQL statements against the database and then executing queries to ensure that the expected changes have been reflected.	测试人员可以在执行某些操作（例如，对数据库执行 SQL 语句然后执行查询）之后观察被测试产品的状态，以确保预期的更改已经被反应出来。
Grey-box testing implements intelligent test scenarios, based on limited information.	灰盒测试可以基于有限的信息实现智能的测试场景。
This will particularly apply to data type handling, exception handling, and so on.	这一点特别适用于数据类型处理、异常处理等。
Broadly speaking, there are at least three levels of testing: unit testing, integration testing, and system testing.	从广义上说，测试至少可以分为三个级别：单元测试、集成测试以及系统测试。
However, a fourth level, acceptance testing, may be included by developers.	但对开发人员来说，可能还有第四个级别：验收测试。
This may be in the form of operational acceptance testing or be simple end-user (beta) testing, testing to ensure the software meets functional expectations.	它的形式可以是运行验收测试，也可以是简单的终端用户测试（beta 测试），以确保软件的功能与所期待的一致。
Tests are frequently grouped into one of these levels by where they are added in the software development process, or by the level of specificity of the test.	通常会根据测试在软件开发过程中所加进来的位置，或者根据测试的专门化程度，将其集合成其中的一个级别。
The first people to inhabit the area now known as Sydney were indigenous Australians having migrated from northern Australia and before that from southeast Asia.	第一批搬到现在的悉尼地区的人是澳大利亚原住民，他们从澳大利亚北部迁徙过来，来澳大利亚之前曾居住在东南亚。
Radiocarbon dating suggests human activity first started to occur in the Sydney area from around 30,735 years ago.	放射性碳测定年代法表明，人类活动最早开始于 30735 年前的悉尼地区。
However, numerous Aboriginal stone tools were found in Western Sydney's gravel sediments that were dated from 45,000 to 50,000 years BP, which would indicate that there was human settlement in Sydney earlier than thought.	然而，人们在西悉尼的砾石沉积物中发现了大量可追溯到 45000 至 50000 年前的原始石器工具，这表明，悉尼有人类定居的时间点比我们想象中的要早。
The first meeting between the native people and the British occurred on 29 April 1770 when Lieutenant James Cook landed at Botany Bay on the Kurnell Peninsula and encountered the Gweagal clan.	1770 年 4 月 29 日，詹姆斯·库克中尉在科内尔半岛的植物学湾登陆时，遇到了格威盖尔部落的人。这是英国人与当地原住民的第一次见面。
He noted in his journal that they were confused and somewhat hostile towards the foreign visitors.	库克在日记中写到，这些原住民看到有外人进来感到很困惑，而且带有敌意。
Cook was on a mission of exploration and was not commissioned to start a settlement.	库克当时正在执行一项探险任务，但没有被委托去建立定居点。
He spent a short time collecting food and conducting scientific observations before continuing further north along the east coast of Australia and claiming the new land he had discovered for Britain.	他花了一小段时间边收集食物边进行科学观察，接着沿澳大利亚东海岸继续北上，宣布自己发现的这片新大陆归英国所有。
Prior to the arrival of the British there were 4,000 to 8,000 native people in Sydney from as many as 29 different clans.	在英国人到来之前，悉尼有 4000 至 8000 名原住民，分属于 29 个不同的部落。
The earliest British settlers called the natives Eora people.	最早的英国殖民者将当地原住民称为“Eora”人。
"Eora" is the term the indigenous population used to explain their origins upon first contact with the British.	“Eora”是当地原住民首次与英国人接触时用来解释自己的出身所用的一个词。
Its literal meaning is "from this place".Sydney Cove from Port Jackson to Petersham was inhabited by the Cadigal clan.	它的字面意思是“来自这个地方”。从杰克逊港至彼得舍姆的悉尼港地区这一带曾居住着凯迪加尔部落。
The principal language groups were Darug, Guringai, and Dharawal.	 他们的主要语系为塔鲁尔语、顾林凯语和塔尔瓦斯语。
The earliest Europeans to visit the area noted that the indigenous people were conducting activities such as camping and fishing, using trees for bark and food, collecting shells, and cooking fish.	最早踏上这片土地的欧洲人注意到，澳大利亚原住民会进行野营、钓鱼、利用树木获得树皮和食物、收集贝壳、烹饪鱼等活动。。
Britain—before that, England—and Ireland had for a long time been sending their convicts across the Atlantic to the American colonies.	很长一段时间以来，英国——在此之前是英格兰——和爱尔兰一直把他们的罪犯送到太平洋彼岸的美洲殖民地。
That trade was ended with the Declaration of Independence by the United States in 1776.	这一交易随着 1776 年美国独立宣言的发布而走向了历史终结。
Britain decided in 1786 to found a new penal outpost in the territory discovered by Cook some 16 years earlier.	1786 年，英国决定在库克 16 年前发现的大陆上设立一个新的罪犯流放地。
Captain Philip led the First Fleet of 11 ships and about 850 convicts into Botany Bay on 18 January 1788, though deemed the location unsuitable due to poor soil and a lack of fresh water.	1788 年 1 月 18 日，飞利浦船长率领由 11 艘船和 850 名囚犯组成的“第一舰队”抵达植物学湾，尽管他认为这个地方土壤贫瘠，淡水资源缺乏，不适合人类居住。
He travelled a short way further north and arrived at Sydney Cove on 26 January 1788.	他朝北继续前行了一小段路程，于 1788 年 1 月 26 日抵达悉尼湾。
This was to be the location for the new colony.	这里就是要建立新殖民地的地方。
Phillip described Port Jackson as being "without exception the finest harbour in the world".	菲利普将杰克逊港描述为“世界上无与伦比的最好的港湾”。
The colony was at first to be titled "New Albion" (after Albion, another name for Great Britain), but Phillip decided on "Sydney".	起初，殖民地本来要被命名为“新阿尔比恩”（“阿尔比恩”是英国的另一国名），但菲利普决定用“悉尼”这个名字。
The official proclamation and naming of the colony happened on 7 February 1788.	1788 年 2 月 7 日，殖民地正式宣告成立并进行命名。
Lieutenant William Dawes produced a town plan in 1790 but it was ignored by the colony's leaders.	威廉·道斯中尉 1790 年时曾制定过一份城市规划方案，但殖民地的领导层不以为意。
Sydney's layout today reflects this lack of planning.	悉尼今天的城市布局就反映出了当年城市规划的缺位。
Between 1788 and 1792, 3,546 male and 766 female convicts were landed at Sydney—many "professional criminals" with few of the skills required for the establishment of a colony. The food situation reached crisis point in 1790.	1788 年至 1792 年期间，共有 3546 名男囚犯和 766 名女囚犯在悉尼登陆——很多“专业囚犯”几乎不具备开拓殖民地所需的技能。1790 年，该地粮食形势告急。
Early efforts at agriculture were fraught and supplies from overseas were scarce.	早期的农业生产非常糟糕，来自海外的物资供应也非常稀少。
From 1791 on, however, the more regular arrival of ships and the beginnings of trade lessened the feeling of isolation and improved supplies.	然而，从 1791 年起，开始有船只更频繁地抵达悉尼，贸易也开始发展起来，这减轻了大家的孤立感，也改善了物资供应。
The colony was not founded on the principles of freedom and prosperity.	殖民地不是建立在自由和繁荣的原则上的。
Maps from this time show no prison buildings; the punishment for convicts was transportation rather than incarceration, but serious offences were penalised by flogging and hanging.	这一时期的地图并没有标示监狱，意味着对罪犯的惩罚不是囚禁而是流放。但重大罪犯会受到鞭笞和绞刑的惩罚。
Phillip sent exploratory missions in search of better soils and fixed on the Parramatta region as a promising area for expansion and moved many of the convicts from late 1788 to establish a small township, which became the main centre of the colony's economic life, leaving Sydney Cove only as an important port and focus of social life.	菲利普发布各项探索任务让大家去寻找更好的土地，最终定于帕拉玛塔这个地区，认为在这里进行扩张很有前景，并自 1788 年底起将众多犯人送到这里来建立起一个小城镇。这个小城镇变成了殖民地主要的经济生活中心，悉尼湾只用作重要港口和社会活动中心。
Poor equipment and unfamiliar soils and climate continued to hamper the expansion of farming from Farm Cove to Parramatta and Toongabbie, but a building programme, assisted by convict labour, advanced steadily.	虽然设备的简陋以及对当地土壤和气候不熟悉仍然威胁着从农场湾到帕拉玛塔和图龙加比的农业发展，但在罪犯劳动力的帮助下，一个城镇规划方案在稳步推进。
Officers and convicts alike faced starvation as supplies ran low and little could be cultivated from the land.	物资供应不足，农业收成少，导致军官和囚犯都面临着饥饿的困境。
The region's indigenous population was also suffering.	该地区的原住民也同样不好过。
It is estimated that half of the native people in Sydney died during the smallpox epidemic of 1789.	据估计，悉尼有一半的原住民死于 1789 年爆发的天花。
Enlightened for his age, Phillip's personal intent was to establish harmonious relations with local Aboriginal people and try to reform as well as discipline the convicts of the colony.	受所处时代启发，菲利普本人打算与当地原住民建立和谐的关系，试图改革并管教好殖民地的囚犯。
Phillip and several of his officers – most notably Watkin Tench – left behind journals and accounts which tell of immense hardships during the first years of settlement.	菲利普和他手下的几个军官——其中沃特金·坦奇最为有名——留下了日记和记录，讲述了殖民之初那几年所遭遇到的巨大困难。
Part of Macquarie's effort to transform the colony was his authorisation for convicts to re-enter society as free citizens.	麦格理对殖民地改革作出了诸多努力，其中一项是授权囚犯以自由公民的身份重新进入社会。
Roads, bridges, wharves, and public buildings were constructed using convict labour and by 1822 the town had banks, markets, and well-established thoroughfares.	利用罪犯劳动力，该城镇建立起了道路、桥梁、码头和公共建筑。到 1822 年，这里已经有银行、市场和建设良好的街道。
Parramatta Road was opened in 1811, which is one of Sydney's oldest roads and Australia's first highway between two cities – Sydney CBD and Parramatta.	帕拉玛塔路于 1811 年开通，是悉尼最古老的公路之一，也是澳大利亚境内连接悉尼市中心和帕拉玛塔的首条高速公路。
Conditions in the colony were not conducive to the development of a thriving new metropolis, but the more regular arrival of ships and the beginnings of maritime trade (such as wool) helped to lessen the burden of isolation.	虽然殖民地的条件不利于一个新兴大都会的发展，但船只更加频繁地抵达以及海上贸易（如羊毛）的兴起使这里不再那么与世隔绝。
Between 1788 and 1792, convicts and their jailers made up the majority of the population; in one generation, however, a population of emancipated convicts who could be granted land began to grow.	1788 年至 1792 年期间，罪犯和狱卒占总人口的绝大多数；然而，不到一代人的时间，有权获得土地的获释罪犯人口数量开始增长。
These people pioneered Sydney's private sector economy and were later joined by soldiers whose military service had expired, and later still by free settlers who began arriving from Britain.	这些人开创了悉尼的私营经济，后来，服役期满的士兵也加入了他们，再后来，从英国来的自由殖民者陆续抵达，也加入了私营的行列。
Governor Phillip departed the colony for England on 11 December 1792, with the new settlement having survived near starvation and immense isolation for four years.	总督菲利普于 1792 年 12 月 11 日离开殖民地回到英国，至此，新殖民地已经在险些饿死、与世隔绝的境况中生存了四年。
Between 1790 and 1816, Sydney became one of the many sites of the Australian Frontier Wars, a series of conflicts between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the resisting Indigenous clans.	1790 年至 1816 年期间，悉尼沦为澳大利亚边境战争中的众多战发地之一，被卷入大不列颠王国与奋起反抗的土著部落之间所发生的一系列冲突之中。
In 1790, when the British established farms along the Hawkesbury River, an Aboriginal leader Pemulwuy resisted the Europeans by waging a guerrilla-style warfare on the settlers in a series of wars known as the Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars which took place in western Sydney.	1790 年，英国人在霍克斯伯里河岸建立农场时，一位名为“Pemulwuy”的土著领袖对殖民者发动游击战以抵抗欧洲人，当时悉尼西部正爆发一系列战争，史称霍克斯伯里战争和尼皮战争。
He raided farms until Governor Macquarie dispatched troops from the British Army 46th Regiment in 1816 and ended the conflict by killing 14 Indigenous Australians in a raid on their campsite.	他不停袭击各大农场，直到 1816 年，麦夸里总督从英国陆军第 46 团派军过来，在一次营地袭击行动中杀死了 14 名澳大利亚土著人，才终结了这一冲突。
In 1804, Irish convicts led the Castle Hill Rebellion, a rebellion by convicts against colonial authority in the Castle Hill area of the British colony of New South Wales.	1804 年，爱尔兰罪犯领导了城堡山叛乱，这是一场由罪犯发起的叛乱，反抗英国新南威尔士殖民地城堡山地区的殖民当局。
The first and only major convict uprising in Australian history suppressed under martial law, the rebellion ended in a battle fought between convicts and the colonial forces of Australia at Rouse Hill.	这是澳大利亚历史上第一次也是唯一一次在军事管制下被镇压下去的重大罪犯起义事件，这次叛乱最终变成了一场罪犯与澳大利亚殖民势力之间的战斗。
The Rum Rebellion of 1808 was the only successful armed takeover of government in Australian history, where the Governor of New South Wales, William Bligh, was ousted by the New South Wales Corps under the command of Major George Johnston, who led the rebellion.	1808 年的朗姆酒叛乱是澳大利亚历史上唯一一次成功的武装接管政府行动，新南威尔州总督威廉·布莱被领导这次叛乱的乔治·约翰斯顿少校所指挥的新南威尔士军团赶下了台。
Conflicts arose between the governors and the officers of the Rum Corps, many of which were land owners such as John Macarthur.	各任总督与“朗姆酒军团”的军官之间冲突不断，其中许多军官，如约翰·麦克阿瑟等，都是土地所有者。
Early Sydney was molded by the hardship suffered by early settlers.	早期的悉尼是由早期殖民者所遭受的艰难困苦塑造成的。
In the early years, drought and disease caused widespread problems, but the situation soon improved.	殖民早期，干旱和疾病使得到处哀鸿遍野，但情况很快得到了改善。
The military colonial government was reliant on the army, the New South Wales Corps.	军事殖民政府依赖新南威尔士军团这个军队进行统治。
Macquarie served as the last autocratic Governor of New South Wales, from 1810 to 1821 and had a leading role in the social and economic development of Sydney which saw it transition from a penal colony to a budding free society.	1810 年至 1821 年，麦夸里担任新南威尔士州最后一位独裁总督，在悉尼的社会和经济发展中发挥了主导作用，将悉尼从一个罪犯流放地变成了一个正在萌芽的自由社会。
He established public works, a bank, churches, and charitable institutions and sought good relations with the Aborigines.	他建立了市政工程、银行、教堂和慈善机构，并试图与当地土著建立良好的关系。
Over the course of the 19th-century Sydney established many of its major cultural institutions.	在 19 世纪这段时间里，悉尼的许多重要文化机构都一一建立起来。
Governor Lachlan Macquarie's vision for Sydney included the construction of grand public buildings and institutions fit for a colonial capital.	拉克兰·麦夸里对悉尼的愿景包括建立宏伟的公共建筑和各种机构，将此地打造成一个殖民地首府。
Macquarie Street began to take shape as a ceremonial thoroughfare of grand buildings.	作为宏伟建筑大街的象征，麦夸里大街开始初具雏形。
The year 1840 was the final year of convict transportation to Sydney, which by this time had a population of 35,000.	1840 年是罪犯被运送到悉尼的最后一年，当时悉尼有 3.5 万人口。
Gold was discovered in the colony in 1851 and with it came thousands of people seeking to make money.	1851 年殖民地发现了黄金之后，成千上万的人纷纷来到此地淘金。
Sydney's population reached 200,000 by 1871 and during this time the city entered a period of prosperity which was reflected in the construction of grand edifices.	到 1871 年，悉尼的人口达到了 20 万。这个时期，悉尼进入了一个繁荣期，一栋栋高楼拔地而起。
Temperance coffee palaces, hotels as well as other civic buildings such as libraries and museums were erected in the city.	禁酒咖啡馆、酒店以及图书馆、博物馆等市政建筑也在该城市中建立起来。
Demand for infrastructure to support the growing population and subsequent economic activity led to massive improvements to the city's railway and port systems throughout the 1850s and 1860s.	整个19 世纪 50 年代和 60 年代期间，人口的不断增长以及人口增长带来的经济活动催生了对基础设施的需求，城市铁路和港口系统因而得到了大规模改善。
After a period of rapid growth, further discoveries of gold in Victoria began drawing new residents away from Sydney towards Melbourne in the 1850s, which created a strong rivalry between Sydney and Melbourne that still exists to this day.	一段快速增长期后，人们又在维多利亚州发现了黄金，1850 年，新的淘金热开始将居民从悉尼吸引到墨尔本，导致悉尼和墨尔本之间形成了一种激烈的竞争。这种竞争一直持续到今天。
Nevertheless, Sydney exceeded Melbourne's population in the early twentieth century and remains Australia's largest city.	尽管如此，在 20 世纪早期，悉尼的人口还是超过墨尔本，仍然是澳大利亚最大的城市。
Following the depression of the 1890s, the six colonies agreed to form the Commonwealth of Australia.	19 世纪 90 年代的大萧条后，六个殖民地同意组成澳大利亚联邦。
Sydney's beaches had become popular seaside holiday resorts, but daylight sea bathing was considered indecent until the early 20th century.	悉尼的海滩作为海滨度假胜地变得很受欢迎，不过，直到 20 世纪初，日光海水浴都一直被视为不雅。
Under the reign of Queen Victoria federation of the six colonies occurred on 1 January 1901.	由六个殖民地组成的联邦于 1901 年 1 月 1 日成立，受维多利亚女王统治。
Sydney, with a population of 481,000, then became the state capital of New South Wales.	拥有 481,000 人口的悉尼于是成为了新南威尔士州的首府。
The Great Depression of the 1930s had a severe effect on Sydney's economy, as it did with most cities throughout the industrial world.	20 世纪 30 年代的大萧条对整个工业化世界内的大部分城市的经济都造成了严重打击，悉尼也不例外。
For much of the 1930s up to one in three breadwinners was unemployed.	在 20 世纪 30 年代的大部分时间里，高达三分之一的人失业，导致家庭失去经济来源。
Construction of the Sydney Harbour Bridge served to alleviate some of the effects of the economic downturn by employing 1,400 men between 1924 and 1932.	1924 年至 1932 年，悉尼海港大桥的建造雇用了 1400 名工人，这一定程度上缓解了经济衰退所带来的影响。
The population continued to boom despite the Depression, having reached 1 million in 1925.	尽管经济萧条，人口仍然持续增长，并于 1925 年达到 100 万。
The city had one of the largest tram networks in the British Empire until it was dismantled in 1961.	这座城市拥有大英帝国时期最大的有轨电车系统，直到 1961 年该系统被拆除。
When Britain declared war on Germany in 1939, Australia also entered.	1939 年，英国对德国宣战，澳大利亚也加入了对德行动。
During the war Sydney experienced a surge in industrial development to meet the needs of a wartime economy.	战争期间，悉尼的工业迅速发展，以满足战时经济的需要。
Far from mass unemployment, there were now labour shortages and women becoming active in male roles.	当时非但没有大规模失业，反而出现了人手不足，连妇女都纷纷出来，走上原本属于男人的工作岗位。
Sydney's harbour was attacked by the Japanese in May and June 1942 with a direct attack from Japanese submarines with some loss of life.	1942 年 5 月和 6 月，悉尼港口遭到日本潜艇的直接攻击，造成了一些人员伤亡。
Households throughout the city had built air raid shelters and performed drills.	在整个城市，家家户户都修建了防空洞并进行防空洞演习。
Consequently, Sydney experienced population growth and increased cultural diversification throughout the post-war period.	因此，整个战后时期，悉尼的人口都呈增长趋势，文化多样性也得到了增加。
The people of Sydney warmly welcomed Queen Elizabeth II in 1954 when the reigning monarch stepped onto Australian soil for the first time to commence her Australian Royal Tour.	1954 年，英国女王伊丽莎白二世首次踏上澳大利亚的土地，开始了她的澳大利亚皇家之旅。这位执政君主得到了澳大利亚人民的热烈欢迎。
Having arrived on the Royal Yacht Britannia through Sydney Heads, Her Majesty came ashore at Farm Cove.	女王陛下乘坐皇家游艇“不列颠尼亚”号，经过悉尼角，在农场湾登陆上岸。
There were 1.7 million people living in Sydney at 1950 and almost 3 million by 1975.	1950 年悉尼常住人口为 170 万，到 1975 年增长至近 300 万。
The Australian government launched a large scale multicultural immigration program.	澳大利亚政府发布了一项规模巨大的多元文化移民计划。
New industries such as information technology, education, financial services and the arts have risen.	信息技术、教育、金融服务以及艺术等新产业如雨后春笋般出现。
Sydney's iconic Opera House was opened in 1973 by Her Majesty.	悉尼的地标式建筑悉尼歌剧院于 1973 年落成，由女王陛下揭幕剪彩。
A new skyline of concrete and steel skyscrapers swept away much of the old lowrise and often sandstone skyline of the city in the 1960s and 1970s, with Australia Square being the tallest building in Sydney from its completion in 1967 until 1976 and is also notable for being the first skyscraper in Australia.	20 世纪 60 年代和 70 年代，钢筋水泥建成的摩天大楼刷新了悉尼的天际线，将大量通常以砂岩筑成的低矮旧楼扫进历史之中。自 1967 年落成至 1976 年，澳大利亚广场一直是悉尼的最高建筑，也因为是澳大利亚的第一座摩天大楼而获世人关注。
This prolific growth of contemporary high-rise architecture was put in check by heritage laws in the 1990s onwards, which prevent demolition of any structure deemed historically significant.	自 20 世纪 90 年代起，现代高层建筑的蓬勃发展受到了各大遗产法的抑制。遗产法规定，任何被认为具有历史价值的建筑都不得拆除。
Since the 1970s Sydney has undergone a rapid economic and social transformation.	20 世纪 70 年代起，悉尼经历了较快的经济和社会转型。
As a result, the city has become a cosmopolitan melting pot.	这使得悉尼成为了一个世界性大熔炉。
To relieve congestion on the Sydney Harbour Bridge, the Sydney Harbour Tunnel opened in August 1992.	为了缓解悉尼港大桥的交通压力，1992 年，悉尼港隧道建成开通。
The 2000 Summer Olympics were held in Sydney and became known as the "best Olympic Games ever" by the President of the International Olympic Committee.	2000 年，悉尼举办了悉尼夏奥会，这届奥运会被国际奥委会主席誉为“有史以来最好的一届奥运会”，举世闻名。
Sydney has maintained extensive political, economic and cultural influence over Australia as well as international renown in recent decades.	近几十年来，悉尼对澳大利亚的政治、经济和文化一直有着广泛的影响，在国际上也一直享有盛誉。
Following the Olympics, the city hosted the 2003 Rugby World Cup, the APEC Australia 2007 and Catholic World Youth Day 2008, led by Pope Benedict XVI.	继奥运会之后，该城市还举办了 2003 年橄榄球世界杯、2007 澳大利亚亚太经合组织会议以及由教皇本笃十六世主导的天主教 2008 年世界青年日。
Sydney is a coastal basin with the Tasman Sea to the east, the Blue Mountains to the west, the Hawkesbury River to the north, and the Woronora Plateau to the south.	悉尼是一个沿海盆地，东濒塔斯曼海，西依蓝山，北临霍克斯伯里河，南靠沃罗诺拉高原。
The inner city measures 25 square kilometres (10 square miles), the Greater Sydney region covers 12,367 square kilometres (4,775 square miles), and the city's urban area is 1,687 square kilometres (651 square miles) in size.	市中心区面积为 25 平方公里（10 平方英里），大悉尼都会区面积为 12,367 平方公里（4775 平方英里），市区面积为 1687 平方公里（651 平方公里）。
Sydney spans two geographic regions.	悉尼占据了两个地理区域。
The Cumberland Plain lies to the south and west of the Harbour and is relatively flat.	坎伯兰峡谷位于海港的南面和北面，地势相对平坦。
The Hornsby Plateau is located to the north and is dissected by steep valleys.	宏士比高原位于海港以北，被陡峭的峡谷切割开来。
The flat areas of the south were the first to be developed as the city grew.	随着城市的发展，南部的平坦地区首先得到了开发。
Dutch explorer Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and named it Staten Land "in honour of the States General" (Dutch parliament).	1642 年，荷兰探险家阿贝尔·塔斯曼发现了新西兰，他将之命名为“Staten Land”，即“荷兰议会（States General）的土地”。
He wrote, "it is possible that this land joins to the Staten Land but it is uncertain", referring to a landmass of the same name at the southern tip of South America, discovered by Jacob Le Maire in 1616.	他写道：“这片土地可能与 Staten Land 相连，但我不确定。”这里的Staten Land 指的是南美洲南端的一块同名大陆，该大陆由雅各布·勒梅于 1616 年发现。
In 1645, Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland.	1645 年，荷兰的地图绘制者根据荷兰西兰省（Zeeland）之名将这片土地重新命名为“Nova Zeelandia”。
British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand.	随后，英国探险家詹姆斯·库克将这一名称改成了英语化的“New Zealand（新西兰）”。
Aotearoa (pronounced /ˌaʊtɛəˈroʊ.ə/; often translated as "land of the long white cloud") is the current Māori name for New Zealand.	“Aotearoa”（发音为“aʊtɛəˈroʊ.ə”，通常译为“长白云之国”）是当今毛利人对新西兰的称呼。
It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the whole country before the arrival of Europeans, with Aotearoa originally referring to just the North Island.	我们不知道，在欧洲人到来之前，毛利人是否已经有一个名字来统称整个国家，是否"Aotearoa"在那时仅仅是指新西兰北岛。
Māori had several traditional names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui (the fish of Māui) for the North Island and Te Waipounamu (the waters of greenstone) or Te Waka o Aoraki (the canoe of Aoraki) for the South Island.	毛利人对这两大岛屿有几个沿用的称呼，比如将北岛称为“Te Ika-a-Māui (毛利之鱼) ”，将南岛称为“ Te Waipounamu (绿石之河)” 或“ Te Waka o Aoraki ( 库克山的独木舟) ”。
Early European maps labelled the islands North (North Island), Middle (South Island) and South (Stewart Island / Rakiura).	早期的欧洲地图将这些岛屿标示为为北（北岛）、中（南岛）、南（斯图尔特岛/拉奇欧拉岛）。
In 1830, mapmakers began to use "North" and "South" on their maps to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907 this was the accepted norm.	1830 年，地图绘制者开始在地图上使用“北”和“南”来区分这两个最大的岛，到 1907 年，这种用法已成为大家公认的标准。
The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised, and names and alternative names were formalised in 2013.	新西兰地理委员会 2009 年发现北岛和南岛一直都没有正式名称。2013 年，这两座岛屿分别以英语和毛利语正式命名。
This set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu.	北岛被命名为“ North Island” 和“Te Ika-a-Māui”，南岛被命名为“South Island”和“Te Waipounamu”。
For each island, either its English or Māori name can be used, or both can be used together.	每一个岛可以用英语来指称，可以用毛利语来指称，也可以两种版本一起用。
New Zealand was one of the last major landmasses settled by humans.	新西兰是人类最后定居的主要大陆之一。
Radiocarbon dating, evidence of deforestation and mitochondrial DNA variability within Māori populations suggest New Zealand was first settled by Eastern Polynesians between 1250 and 1300, concluding a long series of voyages through the southern Pacific islands.	放射性碳年代测定法、森林砍伐留下的证据以及毛利人线粒体 DNA 变异表明，东波利尼亚人最先开始在新西兰定居，时间为 1250 年至 1300 年之间，此次定居结束了他们在南太平洋一次又一次的航行。
Over the centuries that followed, these settlers developed a distinct culture now known as Māori.	接下来的几个世纪里，这批定居者发展出了自己独特的文化，即现在的毛利文化。
The population was divided into iwi (tribes) and hapū (subtribes) who would sometimes cooperate, sometimes compete and sometimes fight against each other.	毛利人口分为 iwi （部落）和 hapū （部落分支）两部分，他们之间有时合作，有时竞争，有时交战。
At some point a group of Māori migrated to Rēkohu, now known as the Chatham Islands, where they developed their distinct Moriori culture.	在某一时期，一群毛利人迁徙到 Rēkohu（今查塔姆群岛）, 在那里发展出了自己独特的莫里奥里文化。
The Moriori population was all but wiped out between 1835 and 1862, largely because of Taranaki Māori invasion and enslavement in the 1830s, although European diseases also contributed.	1835 年至 1862 年，莫里奥里人一度濒临灭绝，主要原因是 19 世纪 30 年代塔拉纳基毛利人的入侵和奴役，不过欧洲传来的疾病也起了一定作用。
In 1862 only 101 survived, and the last known full-blooded Moriori died in 1933.	1862 年只剩下 101 个莫里奥里人，1933 年，已知最后一名纯种莫里奥里人也死了。
The first Europeans known to have reached New Zealand were Dutch explorer Abel Tasman and his crew in 1642.	已知最早到达新西兰的欧洲人是荷兰探险家阿贝尔·塔斯曼和他的船员，时间是 1642 年。
In a hostile encounter, four crew members were killed and at least one Māori was hit by canister shot.	在一次偶遇中双方发生冲突，四名船员丧生，至少一名毛利人被霰弹击中。
Europeans did not revisit New Zealand until 1769 when British explorer James Cook mapped almost the entire coastline.	直到 1769 年，欧洲人才再度来到新西兰。这一年，英国探险家詹姆斯·库克绘制了几乎整个新西兰海岸线的地图。
Following Cook, New Zealand was visited by numerous European and North American whaling, sealing and trading ships.	继库克之后，来自欧洲和北美的船只纷纷抵达新西兰，有来捕鲸的，有来捕海豹的，还有来做交易的。
They traded European food, metal tools, weapons and other goods for timber, Māori food, artefacts and water.	他们用欧洲的食物、金属工具、武器和其他货物来换取木材、毛利食物、手工艺品和水。
The introduction of the potato and the musket transformed Māori agriculture and warfare.	土豆和步枪的引进改变了毛利人的农业和战争。
Potatoes provided a reliable food surplus, which enabled longer and more sustained military campaigns.	土豆可靠地解决了食物不足的问题，使军事行动能够持续更长时间。。
The resulting intertribal Musket Wars encompassed over 600 battles between 1801 and 1840, killing 30,000–40,000 Māori.	这导致 1801 年至 1840 年间，毛利部族间爆发“火枪战争”，期间大小战役不下 600 起，共造成 30000 至 40000 名毛利人丧生。
From the early 19th century, Christian missionaries began to settle New Zealand, eventually converting most of the Māori population.	从 19 世纪初开始，基督教传教士开始在新西兰定居，最终使得大部分毛利人都皈依了基督教。
The Māori population declined to around 40% of its pre-contact level during the 19th century; introduced diseases were the major factor.	19 世纪期间，毛利人口数量下降至入侵前水平的 40% 左右，主要致死原因是从外界传进来的各种疾病。
In 1788 Captain Arthur Phillip assumed the position of Governor of the new British colony of New South Wales which according to his commission included New Zealand.	1788 年，阿瑟·菲利普船长就任英国新殖民地新南威尔士的总督。在他的职务管辖范围下，新南威尔士州是包括新西兰在内的。
The British Government appointed James Busby as British Resident to New Zealand in 1832 following a petition from northern Māori.	应北部毛利人的请求，1832年，英国政府于指定詹姆斯·巴斯比为新西兰的英国居民。
In 1835, following an announcement of impending French settlement by Charles de Thierry, the nebulous United Tribes of New Zealand sent a Declaration of Independence to King William IV of the United Kingdom asking for protection.	1835 年，在查理斯·德·蒂埃里宣布法国即将在新西兰建立定居点之后，地位模糊的新西兰联合酋长国向英国国王威廉四世递交了一份《独立宣言》，请求保护。
Ongoing unrest, the proposed settlement of New Zealand by the New Zealand Company (which had already sent its first ship of surveyors to buy land from Māori) and the dubious legal standing of the Declaration of Independence prompted the Colonial Office to send Captain William Hobson to claim sovereignty for the United Kingdom and negotiate a treaty with the Māori.	持续动荡的局势、新西兰公司意欲在新西兰建立定居点的野心（该公司已经派出第一艘船去勘测以购买毛利人的土地）、对《独立宣言》法律效力的质疑，促使殖民地政府派出威廉·霍布森队长去宣示英国在新西兰的主权并与毛利人商定条约。
The Treaty of Waitangi was first signed in the Bay of Islands on 6 February 1840.	《怀唐伊条约》于 1840 年 2 月 6 日在岛屿湾首次签署。
In response to the New Zealand Company's attempts to establish an independent settlement in Wellington and French settlers purchasing land in Akaroa, Hobson declared British sovereignty over all of New Zealand on 21 May 1840, even though copies of the Treaty were still circulating throughout the country for Māori to sign.	为了回应新西兰公司试图在惠灵顿建立独立定居点以及法国定居者在阿卡罗阿购买土地的行为，1840 年 5 月 21 日，霍布森宣布英国对整个新西兰拥有主权，尽管该条约的副本仍在全国各地传着，等待毛利人签署。
With the signing of the Treaty and declaration of sovereignty the number of immigrants, particularly from the United Kingdom, began to increase.	随着条约的签署，主权的宣示，新西兰的移民（特别是来自英国）数量开始增长。
New Zealand, still part of the colony of New South Wales, became a separate Colony of New Zealand on 1 July 1841.	1841 年 7 月 1 日，仍然从属于新南威尔士殖民地的新西兰，变成了独立的新西兰殖民地。
Armed conflict began between the Colonial government and	殖民地政府和毛利人之间
Māori in 1843 with the Wairau Affray over land and disagreements over sovereignty.	于 1843 年爆发了武装冲突，起因是土地纠纷（史称“怀劳骚乱”）和主权纠纷。
These conflicts, mainly in the North Island, saw thousands of Imperial troops and the Royal Navy come to New Zealand and became known as the New Zealand Wars.	这些冲突主要发生在北岛，期间成千上万的帝国军队和皇家海军集结在新西兰，形成了著名的"新西兰战争"。
Following these armed conflicts, large amounts of Māori land was confiscated by the government to meet settler demands.	武装冲突过后，毛利人大量的土地被政府没收，以满足定居者的需求。
The colony gained a representative government in 1852 and the first Parliament met in 1854.	1852 年殖民地建立了代议制政府，1854 年召开了第一届议会。
In 1856 the colony effectively became self-governing, gaining responsibility over all domestic matters other than native policy.	1856 年，这块殖民地成为了事实上的自治殖民地，有权管辖除本地政策之外的所有内部事务。
(Control over native policy was granted in the mid-1860s.)	（19 世纪 60 年代取得本地政策的管控权。）
Following concerns that the South Island might form a separate colony, premier Alfred Domett moved a resolution to transfer the capital from Auckland to a locality near Cook Strait.	由于担心南岛会成为一个独立的殖民地，总督阿尔弗雷德·多梅特决定将首都从奥克兰迁至库克海峡附近的一处地方。
Wellington was chosen for its central location, with Parliament officially sitting there for the first time in 1865.	地处中心的惠灵顿被选中，并于 1865 年在这里正式召开了第一届议会。
In 1891 the Liberal Party came to power as the first organised political party.	1891 年自由党上位执政，成为第一个有组织的政党。
The Liberal Government, led by Richard Seddon for most of its period in office, passed many important social and economic measures.	自由党政府在执政的大部分时间里一直以查理德·塞登为首，在他的带领下，该政府通过了许多重要的经济和社会措施。
In 1893 New Zealand was the first nation in the world to grant all women the right to vote and in 1894 pioneered the adoption of compulsory arbitration between employers and unions.	1893 年，新西兰成为了世界上第一个赋予女性投票权的国家，1894 年，新西兰开创了在雇主和工会之间采取强制性仲裁的先例。
In 1907, at the request of the New Zealand Parliament, King Edward VII proclaimed New Zealand a Dominion within the British Empire, reflecting its self-governing status.	1907 年，应新西兰议会的请求，英国国王爱德华宣布新西兰为大英帝国属下自治领，表明了新西兰的自治地位。
In 1947 the country adopted the Statute of Westminster, confirming that the British Parliament could no longer legislate for New Zealand without the consent of New Zealand.	1947 年，新西兰通过了《威斯敏斯特法令》，确认英国议会在未经新西兰同意的情况下不能再为新西兰立法。
Early in the 20th century, New Zealand was involved in world affairs, fighting in the First and Second World Wars and suffering through the Great Depression.	20 世纪初，新西兰开始登上世界舞台，经历了一战二战，遭遇了经济大萧条。
The depression led to the election of the First Labour Government and the establishment of a comprehensive welfare state and a protectionist economy.	大萧条导致了第一工党政府的成立，这一时期，新西兰实施了全面的福利体制建设，建立了一个保护主义经济。
New Zealand experienced increasing prosperity following the Second World War and Māori began to leave their traditional rural life and move to the cities in search of work.	二战后的新西兰日益繁荣，毛利人开始走出传统的农村生活，到各大城市去寻找工作。
A Māori protest movement developed, which criticised Eurocentrism and worked for greater recognition of Māori culture and of the Treaty of Waitangi.	毛利人举行了游行示威活动，抗议欧洲中心主义，呼吁提高对毛利文化以及《怀唐伊条约》的重视程度。
In 1975, a Waitangi Tribunal was set up to investigate alleged breaches of the Treaty, and it was enabled to investigate historic grievances in 1985.	1975 年，怀唐伊裁判法庭设立，专门受理对违反该条约行为的控告。1985 年，法庭调查了历史遗留的诉求案件。
The government has negotiated settlements of these grievances with many iwi, although Māori claims to the foreshore and seabed have proved controversial in the 2000s.	政府就这些诉求与许多 iwi 人通过谈判进行了解决，尽管让毛利人认领对海岸和海床的领土权在 21 世纪初引发了争议。
New Zealand is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy, although its constitution is not codified.	新西兰是君主立宪制国家，实行议会民主制，但没有成文宪法。
Elizabeth II is the Queen of New Zealand and thus the head of state.	伊丽莎白二世是新西兰的女王，也是这个国家的元首。
The Queen is represented by the governor-general, whom she appoints on the advice of the prime minister.	总督是女王的代理人，女王根据首相的建议任命总督。
The governor-general can exercise the Crown's prerogative powers, such as reviewing cases of injustice and making appointments of ministers, ambassadors and other key public officials, and in rare situations, the reserve powers (e.g. the power to dissolve parliament or refuse the royal assent of a bill into law).	总督可以行使王室特权，如有权审查不公正案件，有权任命部长、大使等重要政府官员，少数情况下还可以行使后备权力（如解散议会的权利、对国王批准的法案的立法否决权）。
The powers of the monarch and the governor-general are limited by constitutional constraints and they cannot normally be exercised without the advice of ministers.	君主和总督的权力受到宪法的限制，通常没有各大部长的建议就不能行使权力。
The New Zealand Parliament holds legislative power and consists of the Queen and the House of Representatives.	新西兰议会由女王和众议院组成，拥有立法权。
It also included an upper house, the Legislative Council, until this was abolished in 1950.	新西兰议会还包含上院，即立法委员会，但于 1950 年被废除。
The supremacy of parliament over the Crown and other government institutions was established in England by the Bill of Rights 1689 and has been ratified as law in New Zealand.	1689 年英国的《权利法案》确立了议会的权力高于国王及其他政府机构，后在新西兰被批准为法律。
The House of Representatives is democratically elected and a government is formed from the party or coalition with the majority of seats.	众议院是民主选举产生的，由拥有多数席位的政党或政党联盟组成政府。
If no majority is formed, a minority government can be formed if support from other parties during confidence and supply votes is assured.	如果没有多数党，则组成少数党政府，但要确保信任投票和补选投票期间得到其他政党的支持。
The governor-general appoints ministers under advice from the prime minister, who is by convention the parliamentary leader of the governing party or coalition.	总督在总理的建议下任命部长，而总理一般是执政党或执政联盟的议会领袖。
Cabinet, formed by ministers and led by the prime minister, is the highest policy-making body in government and responsible for deciding significant government actions.	内阁由部长组成，由首相领导，是政府的最高决策机构，负责为政府的重大行为作出决策。
Members of Cabinet make major decisions collectively, and are therefore collectively responsible for the consequences of these decisions.	内阁成员集体作出重大决策并共同对这些决策的后果负责。
A parliamentary general election must be called no later than three years after the previous election.	议会大选距离上一次大选的时间不得超过 3 年。
Almost all general elections between 1853 and 1993 were held under the first-past-the-post voting system.	从 1853 年到 1993 年，几乎所有的大选都实行简单多数选举制。
Since the 1996 election, a form of proportional representation called mixed-member proportional (MMP) has been used.	自 1996 年的选举以来，新西兰一直实行一种比例代表选举制度，叫“混合成员比例制（MMP）”。
Under the MMP system, each person has two votes; one is for a candidate standing in the voter's electorate and the other is for a party.	在 MMP 制度下，每个人有两张选票，一张用于选出选民所在选区的候选人，一张用于选举政党。
Since the 2014 election, there have been 71 electorates (which include seven Māori electorates in which only Māori can optionally vote), and the remaining 49 of the 120 seats are assigned so that representation in parliament reflects the party vote, with the threshold that a party must win at least one electorate or 5% of the total party vote before it is eligible for a seat.	自 2014 年选举以来，新西兰被划分为  71 个选区（其中包括 7 个毛利人选区，这种选区只有毛利人有投票选择权），120 个译员席位中剩下下的 49 个席位根据政党得票比率分配，这样议会代表情况就能反映出政党得票情况。一个政党必须至少赢得一个选区，或政党得票率至少为 5%，才有资格获得席位。
Elections since the 1930s have been dominated by two political parties, National and Labour.	自 20 世纪 30 年代以来，新西兰的选举一直由两个政党主宰：国家党和工党。
Between March 2005 and August 2006, New Zealand became the first country in the world in which all the highest offices in the land—head of state, governor-general, prime minister, speaker and chief justice—were occupied simultaneously by women.	2005 年 3 月到 2006 年 8 月期间，新西兰成为世界上第一个所有最高国家职位——国家元首、总督、总理、议长和首席法官——均同时由女性担任的国家。
The current prime minister is Jacinda Ardern, who has been in office since 26 October 2017.	 现任总理是 2017 年 10 月 26 日上任的杰辛达·阿德恩。
She is the country's third female prime minister.	她是这个国家的第三任女总理。
New Zealand's judiciary, headed by the chief justice, includes the Supreme Court, Court of Appeal, the High Court, and subordinate courts.	新西兰的司法系统以首席法官为首，由最高法院、上诉法院、高等法院以及初级法院组成。
Judges and judicial officers are appointed non-politically and under strict rules regarding tenure to help maintain judicial independence.	法官和司法官员的任命是非政治性的，他们的任期有着严格的规定，这样有助于维护司法独立。
This theoretically allows the judiciary to interpret the law based solely on the legislation enacted by Parliament without other influences on their decisions.	理论上这样可以允许司法部门只根据议会颁布的立法进行法律解释，在做出决策时无需受到其他因素的影响。
New Zealand is identified as one of the world's most stable and well-governed states.	新西兰被认为是世界上最稳定、管理最好的国家之一。
As at 2017, the country was ranked fourth in the strength of its democratic institutions, and first in government transparency and lack of corruption.	截至 2017 年，该国在民主制度实力方面名列第四，在政府透明度和反腐方面名列第一。
A 2017 Human Rights Report by the U.S. Department of State noted that the government generally respected the rights of individuals, but voiced concerns regarding the social status of the Māori population.	美国国务院发布的一份《 2017 年国别人权报告》表示新西兰政府大体上做到了尊重人权，但同时也表示毛利人的社会地位令人堪忧。
New Zealand ranks highly for civic participation in the political process, with 77% voter turnout during recent elections, compared to an OECD average of 69%.	新西兰在公民参与政治事务方面排名靠前，在最近的选举中，有 77% 的公民参与了投票，相比之下，经合组织国家的公民选举参与度平均只有 69%。
Early colonial New Zealand allowed the British Government to determine external trade and be responsible for foreign policy.	殖民地早期的新西兰允许英国决定对外贸易事务并对外交政策负责。
The 1923 and 1926 Imperial Conferences decided that New Zealand should be allowed to negotiate its own political treaties and the first commercial treaty was ratified in 1928 with Japan.	1923 年和 1926 年的帝国会议决定新西兰应有权自行商讨本国政治条约。1928 年，新西兰与日本签订了第一个商业条约。
On 3 September 1939 New Zealand allied itself with Britain and declared war on Germany with Prime Minister Michael Joseph Savage proclaiming, "Where she goes, we go; where she stands, we stand."	1939 年 9月3日，新西兰与英国一道对德宣战。总理迈克尔·约瑟夫·萨维奇甚至扬言：“英国去哪我们就去哪，英国的立场就是我们的立场。”
In 1951 the United Kingdom became increasingly focused on its European interests, while New Zealand joined Australia and the United States in the ANZUS security treaty.	1951 年，正当英国越来越专注于本国的欧洲利益时，新西兰与澳大利亚、美国一道，签订了《澳新美安全条约》。
The influence of the United States on New Zealand weakened following protests over the Vietnam War, the refusal of the United States to admonish France after the sinking of the Rainbow Warrior, disagreements over environmental and agricultural trade issues and New Zealand's nuclear-free policy.	美越战争引发了抗议，彩虹勇士号沉没后美国拒绝劝诫法国，再加上两国在环境和农业贸易上的分歧以及新西兰的无核政策，所有这些因素加起来削弱了美国对新西兰的影响。
Despite the United States' suspension of ANZUS obligations the treaty remained in effect between New Zealand and Australia, whose foreign policy has followed a similar historical trend.	尽管美国方面暂停执行《澳新美安全条约》中的义务，但该条约在新西兰和澳大利亚之间仍然有效，两国的外交政策也一直沿用着类似的做法。
Close political contact is maintained between the two countries, with free trade agreements and travel arrangements that allow citizens to visit, live and work in both countries without restrictions.	两国之间一直保持着密切的政治联系，签订了各种自由贸易协定和旅行安排协议，两国公民可以自由前往对方国家访问、生活和工作，毫无限制。
In 2013 there were about 650,000 New Zealand citizens living in Australia, which is equivalent to 15% of the resident population of New Zealand.	2013 年大概有 65 万新西兰公民居住在澳大利亚，相当于新西兰常住人口的 15%。
New Zealand has a strong presence among the Pacific Island countries.	新西兰在太平洋岛国中具有举足轻重的影响力。
A large proportion of New Zealand's aid goes to these countries and many Pacific people migrate to New Zealand for employment.	新西兰的对外援助大部分流向这些国家，而这些国家也有很多人移民到新西兰就业。
Permanent migration is regulated under the 1970 Samoan Quota Scheme and the 2002 Pacific Access Category, which allow up to 1,100 Samoan nationals and up to 750 other Pacific Islanders respectively to become permanent New Zealand residents each year.	永久性移民受到 1970 年萨摩亚配额计划和 2002 年太平洋准入类别的管制，每年只允许至多 1100 名萨摩亚人和 750 名其他太平洋岛国居民成为新西兰永久居民。
A seasonal workers scheme for temporary migration was introduced in 2007 and in 2009 about 8,000 Pacific Islanders were employed under it.	2007 年新西兰推出了一项季节性工作者临时移民计划，2009 年约有 8000 名太平洋岛民在该计划下受雇。
A regional power, New Zealand is involved in the Pacific Islands Forum, the Pacific Community, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Regional Forum (including the East Asia Summit).	作为地区性大国，新西兰加入了太平洋岛国论坛、太平洋共同体、亚太经合组织和东南亚国家联盟地区论坛（包括东亚峰会）。
New Zealand is a member of the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and participates in the Five Power Defence Arrangements.	新西兰是联合国、英联邦以及经济合作与发展组织（OECD）的成员，也加入了《五国联防协议》。
In computing, a printer is a peripheral device which makes a persistent representation of graphics or text on paper.	在计算机技术中，打印机是一种外围设备，能使图像或文本持久地显示在纸张上。
While most output is human-readable, bar code printers are an example of an expanded use for printers.	大多数打印机的输出都是可读的，而条形码打印机是对打印机进行扩展使用的一个例子。
The first computer printer designed was a mechanically driven apparatus by Charles Babbage for his difference engine in the 19th century; however, his mechanical printer design was not built until 2000.	人类设计的第一台计算机打印机是 19 世纪查尔斯·巴贝奇为他的差分机所设计的一台机械驱动设备，但直到 2000 年，他设计的机械打印机才被人制造出来。
The first electronic printer was the EP-101, invented by Japanese company Epson and released in 1968.	第一台电子打印机是 1968 年由日本公司 Epson 发明并推出的 EP-101。
The first commercial printers generally used mechanisms from electric typewriters and Teletype machines.	第一批商用打印机大体上利用了电动打字机和电传打字机中的机制。
The demand for higher speed led to the development of new systems specifically for computer use.	对更高速度的要求促使人们开发出了专门在计算机上使用的新系统。
In the 1980s there were daisy wheel systems similar to typewriters, line printers that produced similar output but at much higher speed, and dot matrix systems that could mix text and graphics but produced relatively low-quality output.	20 世纪 80 年代，市面上出现了类似于打字机的菊花轮打印机系统、输出效果与打字机相似但速度更快的行式打印机以及可以混合文本和图形一起输出但输出质量较低的点阵式打印机。
The plotter was used for those requiring high quality line art like blueprints.	绘图机则用于高质量艺术线条的绘制，比如蓝图。
The introduction of the low-cost laser printer in 1984 with the first HP LaserJet, and the addition of PostScript in next year's Apple LaserWriter, set off a revolution in printing known as desktop publishing.	1984 年，惠普推出了一款低成本激光打印机——惠普 Laser jet 一代。次年，苹果在其激光打印机 Apple LaserWriter 中添加了 PostScript ，由此掀起了一场印刷革命，即所谓的桌面出版。
Laser printers using PostScript mixed text and graphics, like dot-matrix printers, but at quality levels formerly available only from commercial typesetting systems.	和点阵式打印机一样，使用 postscript 语言的激光打印机可以混合文本和图像，但论其输出质量，在此之前只有商业排字机才有这样的水准。
By 1990, most simple printing tasks like fliers and brochures were now created on personal computers and then laser printed; expensive offset printing systems were being dumped as scrap.	到 1990 年，传单和宣传册等大多数简单的打印任务都是在个人电脑上完成，然后由激光打印机打印，而价格昂贵的胶印系统则遭到了遗弃。
The HP Deskjet of 1988 offered the same advantages as a laser printer in terms of flexibility, but produced somewhat lower quality output (depending on the paper) from much less expensive mechanisms.	1988 年的惠普 Deskjet 在灵活性方面有着与激光打印机相同的优势，其构造在价格上要便宜很多，但输出质量稍差（取决于纸张）。
Inkjet systems rapidly displaced dot matrix and daisy wheel printers from the market.	喷墨式打印机迅速占领了点阵式打印机和菊花轮打印机的市场。
By the 2000s high-quality printers of this sort had fallen under the $100 price point and became commonplace.	到 21 世纪初，类似的高质量打印机已降至 100 美元以下，用的人开始多了起来。
The rapid update of internet email through the 1990s and into the 2000s has largely displaced the need for printing as a means of moving documents, and a wide variety of reliable storage systems means that a "physical backup" is of little benefit today.	从上世纪 90 年代到本世纪头10 年，日新月异的互联网电子邮件使得人们很多时候不再需要把文件打印出来带走，而各种各样可靠的储存系统的存在也意味着“物理备份”在如今已经没什么太大作用。
Even the desire for printed output for "offline reading" while on mass transit or aircraft has been displaced by e-book readers and tablet computers.	即便想在公共交通或飞机上进行离线阅读，人们也不会打印出来，而是带上电子阅读器或平板电脑。
Today, traditional printers are being used more for special purposes, like printing photographs or artwork, and are no longer a must-have peripheral.	如今，传统的打印机更多是用于一些特殊用途，如打印照片或艺术品，不再是一种不可或缺的外围设备。
Starting around 2010, 3D printing became an area of intense interest, allowing the creation of physical objects with the same sort of effort as an early laser printer required to produce a brochure.	大约从 2010 年开始，3D 打印开始变得火热，这种打印机可以像早期的激光打印机打印宣传册那样打印出实物。
These devices are in their earliest stages of development and have not yet become commonplace.	这种设备目前处于发展早期，尚未得到大规模使用。
Personal printers are primarily designed to support individual users, and may be connected to only a single computer.	个人打印机主要是为支持个人用户而设计，可能会只连接到一台计算机上。
These printers are designed for low-volume, short-turnaround print jobs, requiring minimal setup time to produce a hard copy of a given document.	这些打印机专为量小、低速的打印任务而设计，只需最少的设置时间就能将给定文件的复印件制作出来。
However, they are generally slow devices ranging from 6 to around 25 pages per minute (ppm),	但这种打印机的速度普遍很慢，打印速度为每分钟 6 页到 25 页（ppm）。 
and the cost per page is relatively high.	平均每一页的打印成本也相对较高。
However, this is offset by the on-demand convenience.	但它胜在方便，想用就能直接用。
Some printers can print documents stored on memory cards or from digital cameras and scanners.	有些打印机可以打印存在记忆卡里或数码相机和扫描仪上的文件。
Networked or shared printers are "designed for high-volume, high-speed printing".	网络打印机或共享打印机是“用来实现量大、高速的打印任务的”。
They are usually shared by many users on a network and can print at speeds of 45 to around 100 ppm.	它们通常可以为网络上的许多用户共享，打印速度在每分钟 45 页到 100 页之间。
The Xerox 9700 could achieve 120 ppm.	Xerox 9700 打印机的速度可以达到每分钟 120 页。
A virtual printer is a piece of computer software whose user interface and API resembles that of a printer driver, but which is not connected with a physical computer printer.	虚拟打印机是一种计算机软件，其用户接口和 API 类似于打印驱动程序的接口和 API，只是不和实际的计算机打印机连接。
A virtual printer can be used to create a file which is an image of the data which would be printed, for archival purposes or as input to another program, for example to create a PDF or to transmit to another system or user.	虚拟打印机可以通过将要打印的数据存为图像来生成一个图像文件，该图像用于存档或作为另一程序的输入，例如，生成一个 PDF 文件，或传给另一个系统或用户。
A barcode printer is a computer peripheral for printing barcode labels or tags that can be attached to, or printed directly on, physical objects.	条形码打印机是一种计算机外围设备，用于打印条形码贴纸或标签，可以打印出来贴在实物上，也可以直接在实物上打印。
Barcode printers are commonly used to label cartons before shipment, or to label retail items with UPCs or EANs.	条形码打印机通常用于出货前打印出标签贴在纸箱上，或在零售商品上打印 UPC 码 或 EAN 码。
A 3D printer is a device for making a three-dimensional object from a 3D model or other electronic data source through additive processes in which successive layers of material (including plastics, metals, food, cement, wood, and other materials) are laid down under computer control.	3D 打印机是一种以 3D 模型或其他数据源为基础构建出三维物体的设备，其制作过程是在电脑的控制下通过层层叠加，将材料（塑料、金属、食品、水泥、木材或其他）一层一层加上去。
It is called a printer by analogy with an inkjet printer which produces a two-dimensional document by a similar process of depositing a layer of ink on paper.	被称为打印机是因为这种设备与喷墨打印机的运行过程类似，只不过喷墨打印机是把一层墨水打到纸上，制作出二维的文件。
The choice of print technology has a great effect on the cost of the printer and cost of operation, speed, quality and permanence of documents, and noise.	打印技术的选择对打印机的购买成本、操作成本、速度、文件质量及持久性、噪音都有很大影响。
Some printer technologies do not work with certain types of physical media, such as carbon paper or transparencies.	有些打印机技术对某些类型的物理介质是不适用的，如复写纸或透明胶片等。
A second aspect of printer technology that is often forgotten is resistance to alteration: liquid ink, such as from an inkjet head or fabric ribbon, becomes absorbed by the paper fibers, so documents printed with liquid ink are more difficult to alter than documents printed with toner or solid inks, which do not penetrate below the paper surface.	打印机技术还有一个方面常常会被人们遗忘：抗改性。喷墨头或丝织色带上的液体油墨会被纸的纤维吸收，因此，用液体墨水打印出来的文件比用墨粉或固体墨打印出来的文件更难更改，因为墨粉或固体墨不会渗透到纸张表面以下。
Cheques can be printed with liquid ink or on special cheque paper with toner anchorage so that alterations may be detected.	支票可以用液体墨水打印，也可以印在固定了墨粉的特殊支票纸上，这样如果发生涂改就可以检测出来。
The machine-readable lower portion of a cheque must be printed using MICR toner or ink.	支票的下半部分是要被机器读取的，因此这部分必须使用 MICR 墨粉或墨水打印。
Banks and other clearing houses employ automation equipment that relies on the magnetic flux from these specially printed characters to function properly.	银行和其他票据交换所所采用的自动化设备就是依靠这些特殊印刷字符所产生的磁通量来正常运行的。
The following printing technologies are routinely found in modern printers:	以下是现代打印机常用的打印技术：
A laser printer rapidly produces high quality text and graphics.	激光打印机可以迅速打印出高质量的文本和图像。
As with digital photocopiers and multifunction printers (MFPs), laser printers employ a xerographic printing process but differ from analog photocopiers in that the image is produced by the direct scanning of a laser beam across the printer's photoreceptor.	与数字复印机和多功能打印机（MFPs）一样，激光打印机采用的也是静电印刷的打印过程，但与模拟影印机不同的地方在于，激光打印机的图像是激光光束直接扫描打印机的感光器产生的。
Another toner-based printer is the LED printer which uses an array of LEDs instead of a laser to cause toner adhesion to the print drum.	另一种基于墨粉的打印机是 LED 打印机，这种打印机利用 LED 阵列而非激光来致使墨粉粘附到打印鼓上。
Inkjet printers operate by propelling variably sized droplets of liquid ink onto almost any sized page.	喷墨打印机的工作原理是将大小不一的液体墨滴喷到印纸上，印纸可以是任何尺寸。
They are the most common type of computer printer used by consumers.	这是消费者最常用的一种电脑打印机。
Solid ink printers, also known as phase-change printers, are a type of thermal transfer printer.	固体墨打印机也称相变打印机，是一种热转印打印机。
They use solid sticks of CMYK-coloured ink, similar in consistency to candle wax, which are melted and fed into a piezo crystal operated print-head.	这种打印机使用 CMYK 色固态墨棒，稠度类似于蜡烛，融化后注入有压电晶体运行的打印头中。
The printhead sprays the ink on a rotating, oil coated drum.	打印头将油墨喷在一个正在旋转的涂了油的硒鼓上。
The paper then passes over the print drum, at which time the image is immediately transferred, or transfixed, to the page.	然后打印纸经过打印鼓，此时，图像就会立即被转到打印纸上或定在打印纸上。
Solid ink printers are most commonly used as colour office printers, and are excellent at printing on transparencies and other non-porous media.	固体墨打印机是最常用的办公室彩印机，可以在透明胶片之类的无孔介质上出色地打印。
Solid ink printers can produce excellent results.	固体墨打印机的打印效果非常好。
Acquisition and operating costs are similar to laser printers.	购置成本和操作成本与激光打印机相差无几。
Drawbacks of the technology include high energy consumption and long warm-up times from a cold state.	这种技术的不足之处包括高能耗、低温状态下预热时间过长等。
Also, some users complain that the resulting prints are difficult to write on, as the wax tends to repel inks from pens, and are difficult to feed through automatic document feeders, but these traits have been significantly reduced in later models.	此外，有用户表示这种打印机打印出的材料不好写东西，因为蜡会排斥笔头的墨，而且很难利用自动文件传送器传送打印纸。不过这些弊端在后面的型号中已经得到大幅度改善。
In addition, this type of printer is only available from one manufacturer, Xerox, manufactured as part of their Xerox Phaser office printer line.	此外，这种类型的打印机目前只有一家公司能生产：施乐。固体墨打印机是施乐移相办公打印机系列的其中一款。
Previously, solid ink printers were manufactured by Tektronix, but Tek sold the printing business to Xerox in 2001.	固体墨打印机之前是由泰克公司生产的，但泰克在 2001 年将打印机业务卖给了施乐。
A dye-sublimation printer (or dye-sub printer) is a printer which employs a printing process that uses heat to transfer dye to a medium such as a plastic card, paper or canvas.	染料升华打印机（热升华打印机）采用的打印过程是通过热的作用将染料转移到塑料卡、纸张或画布等打印介质上。
The process is usually to lay one colour at a time using a ribbon that has colour panels.	它的打印过程通常就是利用一个带有色块的色带，一次铺一种颜色。
Dye-sub printers are intended primarily for high-quality colour applications, including colour photography; and are less well-suited for text.	热升华打印机主要用于彩色照片等高质量的彩打，不太适合用来打印文本。
While once the province of high-end print shops, dye-sublimation printers are now increasingly used as dedicated consumer photo printers.	热升华打印机曾经是高端印刷店的专属，但现在被越来越多的消费者专门买来打印照片。
Thermal printers work by selectively heating regions of special heat-sensitive paper.	热敏打印机的工作原理是有选择地在热敏打印纸的确定区域上加热。
Monochrome thermal printers are used in cash registers, ATMs, gasoline dispensers and some older inexpensive fax machines.	单色热敏打印机用于收银机、自动取款机、自助加油机和一些老式的廉价传真机上。
Colours can be achieved with special papers and different temperatures and heating rates for different colours; these coloured sheets are not required in black-and-white output.	彩色打印可以利用特殊的纸张通过不同的温度、加热速度来实现各种颜色，黑白打印则不需要用到这些彩印纸。
One example is Zink (a portmanteau of "zero ink").	其中一个例子是 Zink（“zero ink”的合成词）。
The following technologies are either obsolete, or limited to special applications though most were, at one time, in widespread use.	以下技术要么不合时宜了，要么只能在特殊情况下使用，尽管其中绝大部分都曾经被广泛使用过。
Impact printers rely on a forcible impact to transfer ink to the media.	冲击式打印机依靠一种强大的冲击力将油墨转移到打印介质上。
The impact printer uses a print head that either hits the surface of the ink ribbon, pressing the ink ribbon against the paper (similar to the action of a typewriter), or, less commonly, hits the back of the paper, pressing the paper against the ink ribbon (the IBM 1403 for example).	击打式打印机利用一个打印头，这个打印头要么会打到墨带表面，将墨带压在纸上（类似于打字机的动作），要么打到纸的背面，将纸压在墨带上（例如 IBM1403 打印机），不过这种情况不多。
All but the dot matrix printer rely on the use of fully formed characters, letterforms that represent each of the characters that the printer was capable of printing.	除点阵式打印机外，所有的打印机都依赖全形字符，全形字符是一种字母形式，表示打印机能够打印的所有字符。
In addition, most of these printers were limited to monochrome, or sometimes two-color, printing in a single typeface at one time, although bolding and underlining of text could be done by "overstriking", that is, printing two or more impressions either in the same character position or slightly offset.	此外，这些打印机大多局限于单色，偶尔是双色，一次只能打印一种字样。不过，文本的粗体和下划线可以通过“加粗”来实现，也就是在同一字符位置打两个或两个以上的印，或者稍微转印一下。
Impact printers varieties include typewriter-derived printers, teletypewriter-derived printers, daisywheel printers, dot matrix printers and line printers.	击打式打印机的种类包括打字机衍生打印机，电传打字机衍生打印机、菊花轮打印机、点阵式打印机以及行式打印机。
Dot matrix printers remain in common use in businesses where multi-part forms are printed.	点阵式打印机依然普遍用于需要打印多联表格的业务中。
An overview of impact printing contains a detailed description of many of the technologies used.	对击打式打印的概述包含了对许多已有技术的详细描述。
Several different computer printers were simply computer-controllable versions of existing electric typewriters.	有几种不同的电脑打印机只是现有电动打字机的电脑控制版本。
The Friden Flexowriter and IBM Selectric-based printers were the most-common examples.	Friden 的 Flexowriter 打印机以及基于IBM Selectric 的各种打印机是最常见的两个例子。
The Flexowriter printed with a conventional typebar mechanism while the Selectric used IBM's well-known "golf ball" printing mechanism.	Flexowriter 打印机利用传统的铅字条印刷法，而  Selectric 打印机则利用 IBM 著名的“高尔夫球”打印法。
In either case, the letter form then struck a ribbon which was pressed against the paper, printing one character at a time.	两种设备都是字体碰到一条压到打印纸上的墨带，一次打印出一个字。
The maximum speed of the Selectric printer (the faster of the two) was 15.5 characters per second.	Selectric 打印机（二者中速度较快者）的最高打印速度是每秒 15.5 个字。
The common teleprinter could easily be interfaced to the computer and became very popular except for those computers manufactured by IBM.	普通的电传打字机很容易连接到电脑（除了 IBM 生产的电脑）上，因此在市面上很流行。
Some models used a "typebox" that was positioned, in the X- and Y-axes, by a mechanism and the selected letter form was struck by a hammer.	有些机型会用到“活字箱”，以一个机械装置将活字箱固定在 X 轴和 Y 轴上，被选中的字体则会遭到锤子的敲击。
Others used a type cylinder in a similar way as the Selectric typewriters used their type ball.	有些则用到活字筒，方法与 Selectric 打字机中使用打印球的方法类似。
In either case, the letter form then struck a ribbon to print the letterform.	两种情况下字体都会碰到墨带，打印出该字体。
Most teleprinters operated at ten characters per second although a few achieved 15 CPS.	大多数电传打印机的打印速度是每秒 10 个字，但也有少数达到每秒 15 个字。
Daisy wheel printers operate in much the same fashion as a typewriter.	菊花轮打印机的运行方式和打字机十分相似。
A hammer strikes a wheel with petals, the "daisy wheel", each petal containing a letter form at its tip.	锤子敲击具有花瓣的轮子，也即“菊花轮”，每个花瓣末端都有一个字体。
The letter form strikes a ribbon of ink, depositing the ink on the page and thus printing a character.	字体碰到墨带，将墨打在纸张页面上，这样就打印出了一个字。
By rotating the daisy wheel, different characters are selected for printing.	通过旋转菊花轮，可以选择不同的字体进行打印。
These printers were also referred to as letter-quality printers because they could produce text which was as clear and crisp as a typewriter.	这些打字机也被称为优质字符打印机，因为它们可以打印出像打字机一样清楚明确的文本。
The fastest letter-quality printers printed at 30 characters per second.	最快的优质字符打印机可以每秒钟打印 30 个字。
Liquid ink electrostatic printers use a chemical coated paper, which is charged by the print head according to the image of the document.	液墨静电打印机使用有化学涂层的纸张，根据打印文件的图像通过打印头对纸张进行充电。
The paper is passed near a pool of liquid ink with the opposite charge.	纸张会被传到带有相反电荷的液体墨池附近。
The charged areas of the paper attract the ink and thus form the image.	纸上的带电区域会吸附油墨，从而形成图像。
This process was developed from the process of electrostatic copying.	这一工艺是由静电复制技术发展而来。
Color reproduction is very accurate, and because there is no heating the scale distortion is less than ±0.1%.	它的色彩再现非常准确，而且由于没有加热，图像比例失真低于 ±0.1%。
(All laser printers have an accuracy of ±1%.)	(所有的激光打印机都有 ±1%的失真。) 
Worldwide, most survey offices used this printer before color inkjet plotters become popular.	在彩色喷墨绘图仪普及之前，世界上大多数测绘事务所都用这种打印机打印。
Liquid ink electrostatic printers were mostly available in 36 to 54 inches (910 to 1,370 mm) width and also 6 color printing.	市面上的液墨静电打印机大多为 36-54 英寸（910-1370 毫米）宽，而且也支持六色打印。
These were also used to print large billboards.	这些打印机还被用来打印大型广告牌。
It was first introduced by Versatec, which was later bought by Xerox.	最早推出这种打印机的是 Versatec 公司，后来被 Xerox 收购。
3M also used to make these printers.	3M 公司也生产过这种打印机。
Shampoo (/ʃæmˈpuː/) is a hair care product, typically in the form of a viscous liquid, that is used for cleaning hair.	洗发水 （英文叫 Shampoo，发音/ʃæmˈpuː/） 是一种头发护理产品， 通常呈粘稠液状，用于清洗头发。
Less commonly, shampoo is available in bar form, like a bar of soap.	有时候，洗发水会做成条状出售，像一条肥皂那样。不过这种情况较少。
Shampoo is used by applying it to wet hair, massaging the product into the hair, and then rinsing it out.	洗发水的使用方法是抹在打湿的头发上，按摩一下将其揉进头发里，然后用水冲洗干净。
Some users may follow a shampooing with the use of hair conditioner.	一些人可能还会用护发素再洗一遍。
The typical reason of using shampoo is to remove the unwanted build-up of sebum in the hair without stripping out so much as to make hair unmanageable.	用洗发水洗头通常是为了清除头发中积聚过多的皮脂，但又不能清除过度，以免头发难以梳理。
Shampoo is generally made by combining a surfactant, most often sodium lauryl sulfate or sodium laureth sulfate, with a co-surfactant, most often cocamidopropyl betaine in water.	洗发水通常是由一种表面活性剂（一般为十二烷基硫酸钠，也称月桂醇聚醚硫酸钠）和一种助表面活性剂（一般为椰油酰胺丙基甜菜碱）在水中混合而制成。
The sulphate ingredient acts as a surfactant, essentially heavy duty soap that makes it easier to trap oil and grease.	该硫酸盐成分起到表面活性剂的作用，本质上是一种结实耐用的肥皂，有助于更好地吸走油脂。
Specialty shampoos are marketed to people with dandruff, color-treated hair, gluten or wheat allergies, an interest in using an organic product, and infants and young children ("baby shampoo" is less irritating).	专业洗发水的销售对象是头屑较多者、染发者、对麸质或小麦过敏者、对使用有机产品有兴趣者以及婴幼儿（“宝宝洗发水”的刺激性会小一些）。
There are also shampoos intended for animals that may contain insecticides or other medications to treat skin conditions or parasite infestations such as fleas.	也有专门针对动物的洗发水，这种洗发水可能含有杀虫剂或其他药物，用于治疗皮肤问题或跳蚤等寄生虫感染。
The word shampoo entered the English language from the Indian subcontinent during the colonial era.	“shampoo”一词于殖民时期由印度次大陆传入英国。
It dates to 1762 and is derived from Hindi chāmpo (चाँपो [tʃãːpoː]), itself derived from the Sanskrit root chapati (चपति), which means to press, knead, soothe.	这个词可追溯到 1762 年，源自印地语中的“chāmpo（चाँपो [tʃãːpoː]）”, 而这个印地语单词本身又源自梵语的词根“ chapati（चपति）”, 意为按压、揉捏、抚慰。
In the Indian subcontinent, a variety of herbs and their extracts have been used as shampoos since ancient times.	在印度次大陆，各种各样的草药及其提取物自古以来就被用作洗发水。
A very effective early shampoo was made by boiling Sapindus with dried Indian gooseberry (amla) and a selection of other herbs, using the strained extract.	早期有一种非常有效的洗发水是将无患子与晒干的印度猕猴桃（alma）以及其他精选的草药放在一起煮沸然后过滤提取出来的。
Sapindus, also known as soapberries or soapnuts, a tropical tree widespread in India, is called ksuna (Sanskrit: क्षुण) in ancient Indian texts and its fruit pulp contains saponins which are a natural surfactant.	无患子，又称木患子、油患子，是一种广泛分布在印度的热带树木，在古印度典籍中被称为 ksuna（梵语: क्षुण），果肉含有皂苷，是一种天然的表面活性剂。
The extract of soapberries creates a lather which Indian texts called phenaka (Sanskrit: फेनक).	无患子的提取物会产生一种在印度典籍中叫做“phenaka（梵语：फेनक）”的泡沫。
It leaves the hair soft, shiny and manageable.	它可以使头发柔软，有光泽，易于打理。
Other products used for hair cleansing were shikakai (Acacia concinna), hibiscus flowers, ritha (Sapindus mukorossi) and arappu (Albizzia amara).	其他用于头发清洁的产品还有头发果子（Acacia concinna）、洛神花、 无患子果（Sapindus mukorossi）以及合欢花（Albizzia amara）。
Guru Nanak, the founder and the first Guru of Sikhism, made references to soapberry tree and soap in the 16th century.	锡克教的创教人兼锡克教第一位古鲁纳纳克在 16 世纪曾提到过无患子树和肥皂。
Cleansing with hair and body massage (champu) during one's daily bath was an indulgence of early colonial traders in India.	每天沐浴时用头发和身体清洁剂（champu）来清洁是早期印度殖民地商人的一大嗜好。
When they returned to Europe, they introduced the newly learned habits, including the hair treatment they called shampoo.	当他们回到欧洲，他们这一新习惯也随之被传了过来，包括头发护理法也被带回，他们称之为“香波”。
Sake Dean Mahomed, an Indian traveller, surgeon, and entrepreneur, is credited with introducing the practice of champooi or "shampooing" to Britain.	米克尔·恩迪·穆罕默德是印度的一位旅行家兼外科医生兼企业家，人们认为是他把“shampooing（香波）”的做法带进了英国。
In 1814, Mahomed, with his Irish wife Jane Daly, opened the first commercial "shampooing" vapour masseur bath in England, in Brighton.	1814 年，穆罕默德和他的爱尔兰妻子简·戴莉在英国布莱顿开了第一家商业“香波”蒸汽按摩洗浴店。
He described the treatment in a local paper as "The Indian Medicated Vapour Bath (type of Turkish bath), a cure to many diseases and giving full relief when everything fails; particularly Rheumatic and paralytic, gout, stiff joints, old sprains, lame legs, aches and pains in the joints".	他在当地的一份报纸上将这种护理法描述为“印度药物蒸汽浴（蒸气浴是土耳其的一种沐浴法），可以治愈多种疾病，能在你到处求医无果时帮你彻底脱离苦海，特别是对于风湿病、麻痹症、痛风、关节僵硬、陈年扭伤、跛腿、各种疼痛以及和关节疼痛。”
During the early stages of shampoo in Europe, English hair stylists boiled shaved soap in water and added herbs to give the hair shine and fragrance.	在洗发水被引进英国早期，英国的发型师把肥皂削成片放在水里煮沸，然后加入草药来使头发变香且有光泽。
Commercially made shampoo was available from the turn of the 20th century.	20 世纪初起，市面上开始出现商业性质的洗发水。
A 1914 advertisement for Canthrox Shampoo in American Magazine showed young women at camp washing their hair with Canthrox in a lake; magazine advertisements in 1914 by Rexall featured Harmony Hair Beautifier and Shampoo.	1914 年，《美国杂志》刊登了一则 Canthrox 洗发水广告，广告中年轻的女士在营地上用 Canthrox 洗发水在湖中洗头。而 1914 年 Rexall 公司在杂志上刊登的洗发水广告则主打“Hamony 系列美发洗发用品”。
In 1927, liquid shampoo was invented by German inventor Hans Schwarzkopf in Berlin, whose name created a shampoo brand sold in Europe.	1927 年，德国发明家汉斯·施华蔻在柏林发明了液体洗发水，他的名字成为该款洗发水在欧洲市场销售的品牌名。
Originally, soap and shampoo were very similar products; both containing the same naturally derived surfactants, a type of detergent.	一开始，肥皂和洗发水这两种产品是非常相似的，两者都含有相同的天然表面活性剂，而表面活性剂是一种洗涤剂。
Modern shampoo as it is known today was first introduced in the 1930s with Drene, the first shampoo using synthetic surfactants instead of soap.	我们今天所熟悉的现代洗发水的初代是 20 世纪 30 年代推出的 Drene 洗发水，这是第一款使用合成表面活性剂代替肥皂的洗发水。
Early shampoos used in Indonesia were made from the husk and straw (merang) of rice.	早期在印尼，人们使用的洗发水是由稻壳和秸秆（merang）制成的。
The husks and straws were burned into ash, and the ashes (which have alkaline properties) are mixed with water to form lather.	他们把稻壳和秸秆烧成灰烬，灰烬（具有碱性）与水混合就会形成泡沫。
The ashes and lather were scrubbed into the hair and rinsed out, leaving the hair clean, but very dry.	弄一些灰烬和泡沫到头发上，揉搓后用水冲洗掉，这样头发就干净了，但是非常干燥。
Afterwards, coconut oil was applied to the hair in order to moisturize it.	后来，椰子油也被用于洗头，以滋润头发。
Certain Native American tribes used extracts from North American plants as hair shampoo; for example the Costanoans of present-day coastal California used extracts from the coastal woodfern, Dryopteris expansa,	某些美洲土著部落以北美地区的植物提取物作为洗发液。例如，今天加利福尼亚沿海的柯斯达诺人就从沿海生长的木蕨（广布鳞毛蕨）中提取。
Before quinoa can be eaten the saponin must be washed out from the grain prior to cooking.	食用藜麦前必须先洗一下，将上面的皂苷洗掉，再进行烹饪。
Pre-Columbian Andean civilizations used this soapy by-product as a shampoo.	前哥伦布时代的安第斯文明将这种含肥皂的副产品用作洗发水。
In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) mandates that shampoo containers accurately list ingredients on the products container.	美国食品药品监督管理局规定，在美国，洗发水必须在瓶身上准确列出所含成分。
The government further regulates what shampoo manufacturers can and cannot claim as any associated benefit.	政府还进一步规定了洗发水厂商可以宣称产品具有哪些功效，不可以宣称哪些功效。
Shampoo producers often use these regulations to challenge marketing claims made by competitors, helping to enforce these regulations.	洗发水生产商经常利用这些规定来挑战竞争对手的营销宣传，从而推动了这些规定的落实。
While the claims may be substantiated, however, the testing methods and details of such claims are not as straightforward.	然而，虽然对营销宣传进行验证是有其可能性的，但真要验起来，用什么手段，要验证哪些细节，谈何容易。
For example, many products are purported to protect hair from damage due to ultraviolet radiation.	比如，很多洗发用品都宣称能够保护头发免受紫外线辐射的伤害。
While the ingredient responsible for this protection does block UV, it is not often present in a high enough concentration to be effective.	洗发水中确实存在具有抵挡紫外线功能的成分，但浓度往往不够高，不足以有效地阻挡紫外线。
The North American Hair Research Society has a program to certify functional claims based on third-party testing.	北美头发研究协会就有一个基于第三方测试对功效宣传进行认证的计划。
Shampoos made for treating medical conditions such as dandruff or itchy scalp are regulated as OTC drugs in the US marketplace.	用于治疗头屑或头皮瘙痒等疾病状况的洗发水在美国市场被列为非处方药。
In the European Union, there is a requirement for the anti-dandruff claim to be substantiated as with any other advertising claim, but it is not considered to be a medical problem.	欧盟地区则要求，与广告中宣传的所有其他功效一样，对去屑功效的宣称也必须经过证实，但在欧盟，去头屑并不被认为是一个医学问题。
A number of contact allergens are used as ingredients in shampoos, and contact allergy caused by shampoos is well known.	一些接触性过敏原被用作洗发水的成分，由洗发水引起的接触性过敏是众所周知的。
Patch testing can identify ingredients to which patients are allergic, after which a physician can help the patient find a shampoo that is free of the ingredient to which they are allergic.	斑贴试验可以识别出患者对哪些成分过敏，然后医生就可以帮忙找到对该患者来说不含致敏成分的洗发水。
The US bans 11 ingredients from shampoos, Canada bans 587, and the EU bans 1328.	美国规定了 11 种洗发水禁用成分，加拿大 587 种，欧盟 1328 种。
Cosmetic companies have developed shampoos specifically for those who have dandruff.	化妆品公司研制了专门针对头皮屑患者的洗发水。
These contain fungicides such as ketoconazole, zinc pyrithione and selenium disulfide, which reduce loose dander by killing fungi like Malassezia furfur.	这些洗发水含有酮康唑、锌吡硫酮和硒二硫化物等杀菌剂，可以通过杀死糠秕马拉色菌之类的真菌来减少已经松动的头屑。
Coal tar and salicylate derivatives are often used as well.	煤焦油和水杨酸衍生品也常被用于其中。
Alternatives to medicated shampoos are available for people who wish to avoid synthetic fungicides.	想要避免使用合成杀菌剂的消费者可以选择药用洗发水。
Such shampoos often use tea tree oil, essential oils or herbal extracts.	这类洗发水的成分通常是茶树油、精油或草本提取物。
Many companies have also developed color-protection shampoos suitable for colored hair; some of these shampoos contain gentle cleansers according to their manufacturers.	很多公司还开发了适合染发者的护色洗发水，其中一些生产商表示自己的产品含有温和的清洁成分。
They have the advantage of being spill-proof.	这些洗发剂具有防溅的优点。
They are easy to apply; one may simply rub the bar over wet hair, and work the soaped hair into a low lather.	这种洗头皂易于使用：在打湿的头发上用皂块擦一下，将沾有皂液的头发揉出低泡沫。
Stiff, non-pourable clear gels to be squeezed from a tube were once popular forms of shampoo, and can be produced by increasing a shampoo's viscosity.	透明凝胶状的洗发水一度很流行，这种形式的洗发水很稠，倒不出来，要从管里挤出来用。这类洗发水可以通过增加洗发水的粘稠度来生产。
This type of shampoo cannot be spilled, but unlike a solid, it can still be lost down the drain by sliding off wet skin or hair.	这种洗发水不会溢出来，但与固体洗发剂不同的是，它还是会顺着打湿了的肌肤或头发滑下来落到排水沟中。
Shampoos in the form of pastes or creams were formerly marketed in jars or tubes.	膏状或霜状洗发剂之前是装在罐子或管子里出售的。
The contents were wet but not completely dissolved.	里面装的物质虽然是湿的，但未完全溶解。
They would apply faster than solids and dissolve quickly.	它用起来要比固态的快，溶解速度也很快。
Antibacterial shampoos are often used in veterinary medicine for various conditions, as well as in humans before some surgical procedures.	抗菌洗发剂经常用于应对兽医上的各种疾病状况，也用在进行外科手术之前的病人身上。
Closely associated with environmentalism, the "no poo" movement consists of people rejecting the societal norm of frequent shampoo use.	“no poo（不用洗头水）”运动与环保主义密切相关，参加该运动的人反对频繁使用洗发水洗头，对这一约定成俗的行为进行抵制。
Some adherents of the no poo movement use baking soda or vinegar to wash their hair, while others use diluted honey.	有些“no poo”倡导者改用小苏打或醋来洗头，有些用稀释的蜂蜜。
Other people use nothing, rinsing their hair only with conditioner.	还有些人什么洗发剂都不用，只用护发素冲一下头发。
In the 1970s, ads featuring Farrah Fawcett and Christie Brinkley asserted that it was unhealthy not to shampoo several times a week.	20 世纪 70 年代，由法拉·福西特和克里斯蒂·布林克利代言的一些广告称，一周不用几次洗发水会导致不健康。
This mindset is reinforced by the greasy feeling of the scalp after a day or two of not shampooing.	的确，一两天不用洗发水，就会觉得头皮油乎乎的，于是更加强化了人们的这种思维倾向。
Using shampoo every day removes sebum, the oil produced by the scalp.	每天用洗发水洗头可以去除皮脂，即头皮分泌出来的油脂。
This causes the sebaceous glands to produce oil at a higher rate, to compensate for what is lost during shampooing.	这会导致皮脂腺分泌油脂的速度加快，以弥补洗头过程中失去的油脂。
According to Michelle Hanjani, a dermatologist at Columbia University, a gradual reduction in shampoo use will cause the sebum glands to produce at a slower rate, resulting in less grease in the scalp.	哥伦比亚大学的皮肤科医生米歇尔·汉贾尼表示，逐渐减少洗发水的使用可以使皮脂腺分泌油脂的速度减慢，这样就可以减少头皮上的油脂。
Although this approach might seem unappealing to some individuals, many people try alternate shampooing techniques like baking soda and vinegar in order to avoid ingredients used in many shampoos that make hair greasy over time.	虽然这一方法并不为一些人所待见，但很多人还是尝试着用其他方法来代替洗发水，如小苏打和醋等，因为洗发水中的成分时间一长就会致使头发变得油腻。
A railway platform is an area alongside a railway track providing convenient access to trains.	铁路站台是铁路轨道旁边的区域，以方便乘客登上列车。
Almost all stations have some form of platform, with larger stations having multiple platforms.	几乎所有的车站都设有某种形式的站台，较大的车站则会有多个站台。
The world's longest station platform is at Gorakhpur Junction in India at 1,355.40 metres (4,446.9 ft).	世界上最长的站台位于印度戈勒克布尔，长达1,355.40 米（4,446.9 英尺）。
The Appalachian Trail station in the United States, at the other extreme, has a platform which is only long enough for a single bench.	最短的站台位于美国阿巴拉契亚铁路站，长度仅够放一张长凳。
Among some United States train conductors the word "platform" has entered usage as a verb meaning "to berth at a station", as in the announcement: "The last two cars of this train will not platform at East Rockaway".	在美国的一些火车票售票员口中，“站台”一词已被用作动词，意为“在车站停靠”，比如像这样的播报：“本次列车最后两节车厢不停靠东罗卡威车站。”
The most basic form of platform consists of an area at the same level as the track, usually resulting in a fairly large height difference between the platform and the train floor.	站台最基本的形式是一块与铁轨高度持平的区域，这导致站台与车厢地板之间有一个很大的高度差。
This would often not be considered a true platform.	这样的站台通常不算真正意义上的站台。
The more traditional platform is elevated relative to the track but often lower than the train floor, although ideally they should be at the same level.	更典型的站台是高出铁轨的，但通常比车厢地板要低，尽管理想情况下站台应该和车厢地板一样高。
Occasionally the platform is higher than the train floor, where a train with a low floor serves a station built for trains with a high floor, for example at the Dutch stations of the DB Regionalbahn Westfalen (see Enschede).	有些情况下，站台会比车厢地板高，这种情况出现在地板较低的列车所经停的车站是为地板较高的列车而建的，比如德国联邦铁路北威州区域铁路停靠在荷兰火车站。
On the London Underground some stations are served by both District line and Piccadilly line trains, and the Piccadilly trains have lower floors.	伦敦地铁的一些地铁站经停区域线和皮卡迪利线两条线，其中皮卡迪利线就是车厢地板较低的。
A tram stop is often in the middle of the street; usually it has as a platform a refuge area of a similar height to that of the sidewalk (e.g. 100 mm (3.9 in)), and sometimes has no platform.	有轨电车车站一般位于街道中央，通常有一个作为站台的安全区，高度与人行道的高度（如 100 毫米（3.9 英寸）高）差不多。有些时候，有轨电车会不设站台。
The latter requires extra care by passengers and other traffic to avoid accidents.	没有站台则需要行人及来往车辆格外小心，以免发生事故。
Both types of tram stops can be seen in the tram networks of Melbourne and Toronto.	这两种类型的有轨电车停靠站，在墨尔本和多伦多的有轨电车网络中都可以看到。
Sometimes a tram stop is served by ordinary trams with rather low floors and metro-like light rail vehicles with higher floors, and the tram stop has a dual-height platform, as in Amstelveen, Netherlands.	有时，有轨电车停靠站会有地板很低的普通有轨电车以及地板较高类似地铁的轻轨经停，这时，有轨电车停靠站的站台就会有两种高度，如荷兰的阿姆斯特尔芬就是这种情况。
A train station may be served by heavy-rail and light-rail vehicles with lower floors and have a dual- height platform, as on the RijnGouweLijn in the Netherlands.	火车站可能会有车厢地板较低的重轨和轻轨两种列车经停，这种车站站台会设两种高度，如荷兰的 Rijn Gouwellijn 火车站。
Platform types include the bay platform, side platform (also called through platform), split platform and island platform.	站台类型包括港湾式站台、侧式站台（也叫岸式站台）、分离式站台以及岛式站台。
A bay platform is one at which the track terminates, i.e. a dead-end or siding.	港湾式站台是铁路终点站台，如铁路尽头或支线处。
Trains serving a bay platform must reverse in or out.	列车必须以进站（出站）时的颠倒方向驶出（驶入）港湾式站台。
A side platform is the more usual type, alongside tracks where the train arrives from one end and leaves towards the other.	侧式站台是更为常见的一种站台，位于轨道线路一侧，火车会从一端驶进，从另一端驶离。
An island platform has through platforms on both sides; it may be indented on one or both ends, with bay platforms.	岛式站台两边都有侧式站台，它可能会在一端或两端凹进去，形成港湾式站台。
To reach an island platform there may be a bridge, a tunnel, or a level crossing.	到达岛式站台可能要经过一个桥、隧道或平交道口。
A variant on the side platform is the spanish solution which has platforms on both sides of a single through track.	还有一种侧式站台是西班牙式站台，一条轨道两侧都有站台。
Some of the station facilities are often located on the platforms.	车站的一些设施通常设在站台上。
Where the platforms are not adjacent to a station building, often some form of shelter or waiting room is provided, and employee cabins may also be present.	如果站台不毗邻车站，站台上一般会设某种形式的遮阳棚或候车室，也可能设有工作人员管理室。
The weather protection offered varies greatly, from little more than a roof with open sides, to a closed room with heating or air-conditioning.	能遮风挡雨的设施种类很多，从单纯一个四面开放的棚顶，到配有暖气或空调的封闭空间。
There may be benches, lighting, ticket counters, drinking fountains, shops, trash boxes, and static timetables or dynamic displays with information about the next train.	可能会提供长凳、照明设备、售票柜台、饮水机、商店、垃圾箱、静态的列车时刻表以及下一趟列车的动态信息显示。
There are often loudspeakers as part of a public address (PA) system.	通常会有喇叭，作为公共广播（PA）系统的一部分。
The PA system is often used where dynamic timetables or electronic displays are not present.	在没有动态列车时刻表或电子显示设备时，往往就会用到公共广播系统。
A variety of information is presented, including destinations and times (for all trains, or only the more important long-distance trains), delays, cancellations, platform changes, changes in routes and destinations, the number of carriages in the train and the location of first class or luggage compartments, and supplementary fee or reservation requirements.	它可以提供各种各样的重要信息，包括目的地和时间（可能用于所有列车，也可能只用于比较重要的长途列车）、延误、取消、站台变更、路线和目的地变更、列车车厢数、头等车厢或行李箱所处的位置以及附加费用或预定要求等。
Some metro stations have platform screen doors between the platforms and the tracks.	一些地铁站会在站台与铁轨之间设置屏蔽门。
They provide more safety, and they allow the heating or air conditioning in the station to be separated from the ventilation in the tunnel, thus being more efficient and effective.	屏蔽门带来了更高的安全性，而且可以将车站内的暖气或冷气与隧道内的通风隔离开来，从而使车站耗能更少，效率更高。
They have been installed in most stations of the Singapore MRT and the Hong Kong MTR, and stations on the Jubilee Line Extension in London.	新加坡地铁和香港地铁的大部分站点以及伦敦地铁银禧延长线的站点都安装了这些屏蔽门。
Platforms should be sloped upwards slightly towards the platform edge to prevent wheeled objects such as trolleys, prams and wheelchairs from rolling away and into the path of the train.	为防止手推车、婴儿车、轮椅等带轮物体失控滑落到铁轨上，站台应该稍微朝站台边缘向上倾斜。
Many platforms have a cavity underneath an overhanging edge so that people who may fall off the platform can seek shelter from incoming trains.	很多站台在向外凸出的边缘下方设有一个洞，这样如果有人从站台失足掉下来，就可以躲过疾驰而来的地铁，捡回一命。
A dangerous practice is sitting on the edge of the platform, which requires withdrawing the legs fast enough when a train arrives.	坐在站台边缘是一种很危险的行为，因为这意味着列车进站时要以足够快的速度缩回双腿。
In high-speed rail, passing trains are a significant safety problem as the safe distance from the platform edge increases with the speed of the passing train.	在高速铁路中，随着列车运行速度的增大，与站台边缘的安全距离也随之增加，因此，列车的经过是一个重大的安全问题。
A study done by the United States Department of Transportation in 1999 found that trains passing station platforms at speeds of 240 kilometres per hour (150 mph) can pose safety concerns to passengers on the platforms who are 2 metres (6.6 ft) away from the edge due to the aerodynamic effects created by pressure and induced airflow with speeds of 64 kilometres per hour (40 mph) to 95 kilometres per hour (59 mph) depending on the train body aerodynamic designs.	美国运输部 1999 年的一项研究发现，列车以每小时 240 公里（150 英里）的速度经过车站站台时，会对站台上距离站台边缘 2 米（6.6 英尺）的乘客造成安全隐患，因为当时的压力和诱导气流速度达到每小时 64 公里（40 英里/小时）至每小时 95 公里（59 英里/小时），具体视列车车身的空气动力学设计而定，这种情况下会产生空气动力学效应。
Additionally, the airflow can cause debris to be blown out to the waiting passengers.	而且，在气流的作用下碎片会飞溅到正在候车的乘客身上。
If the passengers stand closer at 1 metre (3.3 ft), the risk increases with airflow that can reach speeds of 79 kilometres per hour (49 mph) to 116 kilometres per hour (72 mph).	如果乘客站得更近，比如离站台仅 1 米（3.3 英尺），则会更加危险，因为此时的气流速度可达每小时 79 千米（49 英里/小时）至 116 公里每小时（72 英里/小时）。
In United Kingdom, a guideline for platform safety specifies that for the platforms with train passing speeds between 160 kilometres per hour (99 mph) and 200 kilometres per hour (120 mph), there should be a yellow-line buffer zone of 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) and other warning signs.	在英国，一项关于站台安全的指南规定，对于列车通过速度在 160 公里/小时（99 英里/小时）到 200 公里/小时（120 英里/小时）之间的站台，应设置 1.5 米（4.9 英尺）黄色缓冲带和其他警告标志。
If trains can pass at speeds higher than 200 kilometres per hour (120 mph), the platforms should be inaccessible to passengers unless there are waiting rooms or screened areas to provide protection.	如果列车经过速度高于 200 公里/小时（120 英里/小时），应禁止乘客进入站台，除非站台设有可护乘客安全的候车室或屏蔽区。
The European Union has a regulation for platforms that are close to tracks with train passing speeds of 250 kilometres per hour (160 mph) or more should not be accessible to passengers unless there is a lower speed limit for trains that intend to stop at the station or there are barriers to limit access.	欧盟则规定，列车通过速度达 250 公里/小时（160 英里/小时）或更高时，靠近铁轨的站台不应向乘客开放，除非对拟停在本站的列车有限速规定，或设置了限制乘客进入的栅栏。
Platforms usually have some form of warnings or measures to keep passengers away from the tracks.	站台一般设有某种形式的警告或措施来让乘客远离铁轨。
The simplest measure is markings near the edge of the platform to demarcate the distance back that passengers should remain.	最简单的措施是在靠近站台边缘的地方做标记，划出乘客应该保持的距离。
Often a special tiled surface is used as well as a painted line, to help blind people using a walking aid, and help in preventing wheelchairs from rolling too near the platform edge.	除画线外，站台通常还铺设一个特殊的瓷砖表面，作为盲道帮助盲人通行，同时防止轮椅滑过时太靠近站台边缘。
In the US, Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 regulations require a detectable warning strip 24 inches (61 cm) wide, consisting of truncated dome bumps in a visually-contrasting color, for the full length of the platform.	美国 1990 年颁行的《美国残疾人法案》规定，车站必须铺设一条长度与整个站台同长、宽 24 英寸（61 厘米）的易于发现的警示带，警示带必须带有扁圆点状凸起，颜色看起来要鲜明。
Ideally platforms should be straight or slightly convex, so that the guard can see the whole train when preparing to close the doors.	理想情况下，站台应该是直的或略微凸出的，这样列车长在准备关门的时候才能看见整个列车。
Platforms that have great curvature have blind spots that create a safety hazard.	曲度大的站台会造成视觉盲点，导致安全隐患。
Mirrors or closed-circuit cameras may be used in these cases to view the whole platform.	这种情况下，列车长可能会用镜子或闭路摄像头来查看整个站台。
Also passenger carriages are straight, so doors will not always open directly onto a curved platform – often a platform gap is present.	而且，由于车厢是直的，车门打开后无法与弯曲的站台很好地衔接，往往就会留下一条站台缝隙。
Usually such platforms will have warning signs, possibly auditory, such as London Underground's famous phrase "Mind the gap".	这样的站台通常会设警告信号，可能是以提示声的形式，比如伦敦地铁那句著名的“小心缝隙”。
There may be moveable gap filler sections within the platform, extending once the train has stopped and retracting after the doors have closed.	站台内可能会设置可移动的缝隙填充物，列车停下时延伸出来，列车关闭时收缩回去。
The New York City Subway employs these at 14th Street–Union Square on the IRT Lexington Avenue Line and at Times Square on the 42nd Street Shuttle, and formerly at the South Ferry outer loop station on the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line.	纽约地铁的 IRT 列克星敦大道线 14 号街联合广场站以及时代广场 42   街接驳线就设置了这种填充物。之前 IRT 百老汇-第七大道线的南码头外环站也用过这个办法。
In the UK, recent rules require new platforms to be straight.	英国最近的规定要求新的站台必须是直的。
